empirical vs descriptive research

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What is Descriptive Research? Definition, Methods, Types and Examples

Descriptive research is a methodological approach that seeks to depict the characteristics of a phenomenon or subject under investigation. In scientific inquiry, it serves as a foundational tool for researchers aiming to observe, record, and analyze the intricate details of a particular topic. This method provides a rich and detailed account that aids in understanding, categorizing, and interpreting the subject matter.

Descriptive research design is widely employed across diverse fields, and its primary objective is to systematically observe and document all variables and conditions influencing the phenomenon.

After this descriptive research definition, let’s look at this example. Consider a researcher working on climate change adaptation, who wants to understand water management trends in an arid village in a specific study area. She must conduct a demographic survey of the region, gather population data, and then conduct descriptive research on this demographic segment. The study will then uncover details on “what are the water management practices and trends in village X.” Note, however, that it will not cover any investigative information about “why” the patterns exist.

Table of Contents

What is descriptive research?

If you’ve been wondering “What is descriptive research,” we’ve got you covered in this post! In a nutshell, descriptive research is an exploratory research method that helps a researcher describe a population, circumstance, or phenomenon. It can help answer what , where , when and how questions, but not why questions. In other words, it does not involve changing the study variables and does not seek to establish cause-and-effect relationships.

Importance of descriptive research

Now, let’s delve into the importance of descriptive research. This research method acts as the cornerstone for various academic and applied disciplines. Its primary significance lies in its ability to provide a comprehensive overview of a phenomenon, enabling researchers to gain a nuanced understanding of the variables at play. This method aids in forming hypotheses, generating insights, and laying the groundwork for further in-depth investigations. The following points further illustrate its importance:

Provides insights into a population or phenomenon: Descriptive research furnishes a comprehensive overview of the characteristics and behaviors of a specific population or phenomenon, thereby guiding and shaping the research project.

Offers baseline data: The data acquired through this type of research acts as a reference for subsequent investigations, laying the groundwork for further studies.

Allows validation of sampling methods: Descriptive research validates sampling methods, aiding in the selection of the most effective approach for the study.

Helps reduce time and costs: It is cost-effective and time-efficient, making this an economical means of gathering information about a specific population or phenomenon.

Ensures replicability: Descriptive research is easily replicable, ensuring a reliable way to collect and compare information from various sources.

When to use descriptive research design?

Determining when to use descriptive research depends on the nature of the research question. Before diving into the reasons behind an occurrence, understanding the how, when, and where aspects is essential. Descriptive research design is a suitable option when the research objective is to discern characteristics, frequencies, trends, and categories without manipulating variables. It is therefore often employed in the initial stages of a study before progressing to more complex research designs. To put it in another way, descriptive research precedes the hypotheses of explanatory research. It is particularly valuable when there is limited existing knowledge about the subject.

Some examples are as follows, highlighting that these questions would arise before a clear outline of the research plan is established:

In the last two decades, what changes have occurred in patterns of urban gardening in Mumbai?
What are the differences in climate change perceptions of farmers in coastal versus inland villages in the Philippines?

Characteristics of descriptive research

Coming to the characteristics of descriptive research, this approach is characterized by its focus on observing and documenting the features of a subject. Specific characteristics are as below.

Quantitative nature: Some descriptive research types involve quantitative research methods to gather quantifiable information for statistical analysis of the population sample.
Qualitative nature: Some descriptive research examples include those using the qualitative research method to describe or explain the research problem.
Observational nature: This approach is non-invasive and observational because the study variables remain untouched. Researchers merely observe and report, without introducing interventions that could impact the subject(s).
Cross-sectional nature: In descriptive research, different sections belonging to the same group are studied, providing a “snapshot” of sorts.
Springboard for further research: The data collected are further studied and analyzed using different research techniques. This approach helps guide the suitable research methods to be employed.

Types of descriptive research

There are various descriptive research types, each suited to different research objectives. Take a look at the different types below.

Surveys: This involves collecting data through questionnaires or interviews to gather qualitative and quantitative data.
Observational studies: This involves observing and collecting data on a particular population or phenomenon without influencing the study variables or manipulating the conditions. These may be further divided into cohort studies, case studies, and cross-sectional studies:
Cohort studies: Also known as longitudinal studies, these studies involve the collection of data over an extended period, allowing researchers to track changes and trends.
Case studies: These deal with a single individual, group, or event, which might be rare or unusual.
Cross-sectional studies : A researcher collects data at a single point in time, in order to obtain a snapshot of a specific moment.
Focus groups: In this approach, a small group of people are brought together to discuss a topic. The researcher moderates and records the group discussion. This can also be considered a “participatory” observational method.
Descriptive classification: Relevant to the biological sciences, this type of approach may be used to classify living organisms.

Descriptive research methods

Several descriptive research methods can be employed, and these are more or less similar to the types of approaches mentioned above.

Surveys: This method involves the collection of data through questionnaires or interviews. Surveys may be done online or offline, and the target subjects might be hyper-local, regional, or global.
Observational studies: These entail the direct observation of subjects in their natural environment. These include case studies, dealing with a single case or individual, as well as cross-sectional and longitudinal studies, for a glimpse into a population or changes in trends over time, respectively. Participatory observational studies such as focus group discussions may also fall under this method.

Researchers must carefully consider descriptive research methods, types, and examples to harness their full potential in contributing to scientific knowledge.

Examples of descriptive research

Now, let’s consider some descriptive research examples.

In social sciences, an example could be a study analyzing the demographics of a specific community to understand its socio-economic characteristics.
In business, a market research survey aiming to describe consumer preferences would be a descriptive study.
In ecology, a researcher might undertake a survey of all the types of monocots naturally occurring in a region and classify them up to species level.

These examples showcase the versatility of descriptive research across diverse fields.

Advantages of descriptive research

There are several advantages to this approach, which every researcher must be aware of. These are as follows:

Owing to the numerous descriptive research methods and types, primary data can be obtained in diverse ways and be used for developing a research hypothesis .
It is a versatile research method and allows flexibility.
Detailed and comprehensive information can be obtained because the data collected can be qualitative or quantitative.
It is carried out in the natural environment, which greatly minimizes certain types of bias and ethical concerns.
It is an inexpensive and efficient approach, even with large sample sizes

Disadvantages of descriptive research

On the other hand, this design has some drawbacks as well:

It is limited in its scope as it does not determine cause-and-effect relationships.
The approach does not generate new information and simply depends on existing data.
Study variables are not manipulated or controlled, and this limits the conclusions to be drawn.
Descriptive research findings may not be generalizable to other populations.
Finally, it offers a preliminary understanding rather than an in-depth understanding.

To reiterate, the advantages of descriptive research lie in its ability to provide a comprehensive overview, aid hypothesis generation, and serve as a preliminary step in the research process. However, its limitations include a potential lack of depth, inability to establish cause-and-effect relationships, and susceptibility to bias.

Frequently asked questions

When should researchers conduct descriptive research.

Descriptive research is most appropriate when researchers aim to portray and understand the characteristics of a phenomenon without manipulating variables. It is particularly valuable in the early stages of a study.

What is the difference between descriptive and exploratory research?

Descriptive research focuses on providing a detailed depiction of a phenomenon, while exploratory research aims to explore and generate insights into an issue where little is known.

What is the difference between descriptive and experimental research?

Descriptive research observes and documents without manipulating variables, whereas experimental research involves intentional interventions to establish cause-and-effect relationships.

Is descriptive research only for social sciences?

No, various descriptive research types may be applicable to all fields of study, including social science, humanities, physical science, and biological science.

How important is descriptive research?

The importance of descriptive research lies in its ability to provide a glimpse of the current state of a phenomenon, offering valuable insights and establishing a basic understanding. Further, the advantages of descriptive research include its capacity to offer a straightforward depiction of a situation or phenomenon, facilitate the identification of patterns or trends, and serve as a useful starting point for more in-depth investigations. Additionally, descriptive research can contribute to the development of hypotheses and guide the formulation of research questions for subsequent studies.

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Empirical Research: Definition, Methods, Types and Examples

Content Index

Empirical research: Definition

Empirical research: origin, quantitative research methods, qualitative research methods, steps for conducting empirical research, empirical research methodology cycle, advantages of empirical research, disadvantages of empirical research, why is there a need for empirical research.

Empirical research is defined as any research where conclusions of the study is strictly drawn from concretely empirical evidence, and therefore “verifiable” evidence.

This empirical evidence can be gathered using quantitative market research and qualitative market research methods.

For example: A research is being conducted to find out if listening to happy music in the workplace while working may promote creativity? An experiment is conducted by using a music website survey on a set of audience who are exposed to happy music and another set who are not listening to music at all, and the subjects are then observed. The results derived from such a research will give empirical evidence if it does promote creativity or not.

LEARN ABOUT: Behavioral Research

You must have heard the quote” I will not believe it unless I see it”. This came from the ancient empiricists, a fundamental understanding that powered the emergence of medieval science during the renaissance period and laid the foundation of modern science, as we know it today. The word itself has its roots in greek. It is derived from the greek word empeirikos which means “experienced”.

In today’s world, the word empirical refers to collection of data using evidence that is collected through observation or experience or by using calibrated scientific instruments. All of the above origins have one thing in common which is dependence of observation and experiments to collect data and test them to come up with conclusions.

LEARN ABOUT: Causal Research

Types and methodologies of empirical research

Empirical research can be conducted and analysed using qualitative or quantitative methods.

Quantitative research : Quantitative research methods are used to gather information through numerical data. It is used to quantify opinions, behaviors or other defined variables . These are predetermined and are in a more structured format. Some of the commonly used methods are survey, longitudinal studies, polls, etc
Qualitative research: Qualitative research methods are used to gather non numerical data. It is used to find meanings, opinions, or the underlying reasons from its subjects. These methods are unstructured or semi structured. The sample size for such a research is usually small and it is a conversational type of method to provide more insight or in-depth information about the problem Some of the most popular forms of methods are focus groups, experiments, interviews, etc.

Data collected from these will need to be analysed. Empirical evidence can also be analysed either quantitatively and qualitatively. Using this, the researcher can answer empirical questions which have to be clearly defined and answerable with the findings he has got. The type of research design used will vary depending on the field in which it is going to be used. Many of them might choose to do a collective research involving quantitative and qualitative method to better answer questions which cannot be studied in a laboratory setting.

LEARN ABOUT: Qualitative Research Questions and Questionnaires

Quantitative research methods aid in analyzing the empirical evidence gathered. By using these a researcher can find out if his hypothesis is supported or not.

Survey research: Survey research generally involves a large audience to collect a large amount of data. This is a quantitative method having a predetermined set of closed questions which are pretty easy to answer. Because of the simplicity of such a method, high responses are achieved. It is one of the most commonly used methods for all kinds of research in today’s world.

Previously, surveys were taken face to face only with maybe a recorder. However, with advancement in technology and for ease, new mediums such as emails , or social media have emerged.

For example: Depletion of energy resources is a growing concern and hence there is a need for awareness about renewable energy. According to recent studies, fossil fuels still account for around 80% of energy consumption in the United States. Even though there is a rise in the use of green energy every year, there are certain parameters because of which the general population is still not opting for green energy. In order to understand why, a survey can be conducted to gather opinions of the general population about green energy and the factors that influence their choice of switching to renewable energy. Such a survey can help institutions or governing bodies to promote appropriate awareness and incentive schemes to push the use of greener energy.

Learn more: Renewable Energy Survey Template Descriptive Research vs Correlational Research

Experimental research: In experimental research , an experiment is set up and a hypothesis is tested by creating a situation in which one of the variable is manipulated. This is also used to check cause and effect. It is tested to see what happens to the independent variable if the other one is removed or altered. The process for such a method is usually proposing a hypothesis, experimenting on it, analyzing the findings and reporting the findings to understand if it supports the theory or not.

For example: A particular product company is trying to find what is the reason for them to not be able to capture the market. So the organisation makes changes in each one of the processes like manufacturing, marketing, sales and operations. Through the experiment they understand that sales training directly impacts the market coverage for their product. If the person is trained well, then the product will have better coverage.

Correlational research: Correlational research is used to find relation between two set of variables . Regression analysis is generally used to predict outcomes of such a method. It can be positive, negative or neutral correlation.

LEARN ABOUT: Level of Analysis

For example: Higher educated individuals will get higher paying jobs. This means higher education enables the individual to high paying job and less education will lead to lower paying jobs.

Longitudinal study: Longitudinal study is used to understand the traits or behavior of a subject under observation after repeatedly testing the subject over a period of time. Data collected from such a method can be qualitative or quantitative in nature.

For example: A research to find out benefits of exercise. The target is asked to exercise everyday for a particular period of time and the results show higher endurance, stamina, and muscle growth. This supports the fact that exercise benefits an individual body.

Cross sectional: Cross sectional study is an observational type of method, in which a set of audience is observed at a given point in time. In this type, the set of people are chosen in a fashion which depicts similarity in all the variables except the one which is being researched. This type does not enable the researcher to establish a cause and effect relationship as it is not observed for a continuous time period. It is majorly used by healthcare sector or the retail industry.

For example: A medical study to find the prevalence of under-nutrition disorders in kids of a given population. This will involve looking at a wide range of parameters like age, ethnicity, location, incomes and social backgrounds. If a significant number of kids coming from poor families show under-nutrition disorders, the researcher can further investigate into it. Usually a cross sectional study is followed by a longitudinal study to find out the exact reason.

Causal-Comparative research : This method is based on comparison. It is mainly used to find out cause-effect relationship between two variables or even multiple variables.

For example: A researcher measured the productivity of employees in a company which gave breaks to the employees during work and compared that to the employees of the company which did not give breaks at all.

LEARN ABOUT: Action Research

Some research questions need to be analysed qualitatively, as quantitative methods are not applicable there. In many cases, in-depth information is needed or a researcher may need to observe a target audience behavior, hence the results needed are in a descriptive analysis form. Qualitative research results will be descriptive rather than predictive. It enables the researcher to build or support theories for future potential quantitative research. In such a situation qualitative research methods are used to derive a conclusion to support the theory or hypothesis being studied.

LEARN ABOUT: Qualitative Interview

Case study: Case study method is used to find more information through carefully analyzing existing cases. It is very often used for business research or to gather empirical evidence for investigation purpose. It is a method to investigate a problem within its real life context through existing cases. The researcher has to carefully analyse making sure the parameter and variables in the existing case are the same as to the case that is being investigated. Using the findings from the case study, conclusions can be drawn regarding the topic that is being studied.

For example: A report mentioning the solution provided by a company to its client. The challenges they faced during initiation and deployment, the findings of the case and solutions they offered for the problems. Such case studies are used by most companies as it forms an empirical evidence for the company to promote in order to get more business.

Observational method: Observational method is a process to observe and gather data from its target. Since it is a qualitative method it is time consuming and very personal. It can be said that observational research method is a part of ethnographic research which is also used to gather empirical evidence. This is usually a qualitative form of research, however in some cases it can be quantitative as well depending on what is being studied.

For example: setting up a research to observe a particular animal in the rain-forests of amazon. Such a research usually take a lot of time as observation has to be done for a set amount of time to study patterns or behavior of the subject. Another example used widely nowadays is to observe people shopping in a mall to figure out buying behavior of consumers.

One-on-one interview: Such a method is purely qualitative and one of the most widely used. The reason being it enables a researcher get precise meaningful data if the right questions are asked. It is a conversational method where in-depth data can be gathered depending on where the conversation leads.

For example: A one-on-one interview with the finance minister to gather data on financial policies of the country and its implications on the public.

Focus groups: Focus groups are used when a researcher wants to find answers to why, what and how questions. A small group is generally chosen for such a method and it is not necessary to interact with the group in person. A moderator is generally needed in case the group is being addressed in person. This is widely used by product companies to collect data about their brands and the product.

For example: A mobile phone manufacturer wanting to have a feedback on the dimensions of one of their models which is yet to be launched. Such studies help the company meet the demand of the customer and position their model appropriately in the market.

Text analysis: Text analysis method is a little new compared to the other types. Such a method is used to analyse social life by going through images or words used by the individual. In today’s world, with social media playing a major part of everyone’s life, such a method enables the research to follow the pattern that relates to his study.

For example: A lot of companies ask for feedback from the customer in detail mentioning how satisfied are they with their customer support team. Such data enables the researcher to take appropriate decisions to make their support team better.

Sometimes a combination of the methods is also needed for some questions that cannot be answered using only one type of method especially when a researcher needs to gain a complete understanding of complex subject matter.

We recently published a blog that talks about examples of qualitative data in education ; why don’t you check it out for more ideas?

Learn More: Data Collection Methods: Types & Examples

Since empirical research is based on observation and capturing experiences, it is important to plan the steps to conduct the experiment and how to analyse it. This will enable the researcher to resolve problems or obstacles which can occur during the experiment.

Step #1: Define the purpose of the research

This is the step where the researcher has to answer questions like what exactly do I want to find out? What is the problem statement? Are there any issues in terms of the availability of knowledge, data, time or resources. Will this research be more beneficial than what it will cost.

Before going ahead, a researcher has to clearly define his purpose for the research and set up a plan to carry out further tasks.

Step #2 : Supporting theories and relevant literature

The researcher needs to find out if there are theories which can be linked to his research problem . He has to figure out if any theory can help him support his findings. All kind of relevant literature will help the researcher to find if there are others who have researched this before, or what are the problems faced during this research. The researcher will also have to set up assumptions and also find out if there is any history regarding his research problem

Step #3: Creation of Hypothesis and measurement

Before beginning the actual research he needs to provide himself a working hypothesis or guess what will be the probable result. Researcher has to set up variables, decide the environment for the research and find out how can he relate between the variables.

Researcher will also need to define the units of measurements, tolerable degree for errors, and find out if the measurement chosen will be acceptable by others.

Step #4: Methodology, research design and data collection

In this step, the researcher has to define a strategy for conducting his research. He has to set up experiments to collect data which will enable him to propose the hypothesis. The researcher will decide whether he will need experimental or non experimental method for conducting the research. The type of research design will vary depending on the field in which the research is being conducted. Last but not the least, the researcher will have to find out parameters that will affect the validity of the research design. Data collection will need to be done by choosing appropriate samples depending on the research question. To carry out the research, he can use one of the many sampling techniques. Once data collection is complete, researcher will have empirical data which needs to be analysed.

LEARN ABOUT: Best Data Collection Tools

Step #5: Data Analysis and result

Data analysis can be done in two ways, qualitatively and quantitatively. Researcher will need to find out what qualitative method or quantitative method will be needed or will he need a combination of both. Depending on the unit of analysis of his data, he will know if his hypothesis is supported or rejected. Analyzing this data is the most important part to support his hypothesis.

Step #6: Conclusion

A report will need to be made with the findings of the research. The researcher can give the theories and literature that support his research. He can make suggestions or recommendations for further research on his topic.

A.D. de Groot, a famous dutch psychologist and a chess expert conducted some of the most notable experiments using chess in the 1940’s. During his study, he came up with a cycle which is consistent and now widely used to conduct empirical research. It consists of 5 phases with each phase being as important as the next one. The empirical cycle captures the process of coming up with hypothesis about how certain subjects work or behave and then testing these hypothesis against empirical data in a systematic and rigorous approach. It can be said that it characterizes the deductive approach to science. Following is the empirical cycle.

Observation: At this phase an idea is sparked for proposing a hypothesis. During this phase empirical data is gathered using observation. For example: a particular species of flower bloom in a different color only during a specific season.
Induction: Inductive reasoning is then carried out to form a general conclusion from the data gathered through observation. For example: As stated above it is observed that the species of flower blooms in a different color during a specific season. A researcher may ask a question “does the temperature in the season cause the color change in the flower?” He can assume that is the case, however it is a mere conjecture and hence an experiment needs to be set up to support this hypothesis. So he tags a few set of flowers kept at a different temperature and observes if they still change the color?
Deduction: This phase helps the researcher to deduce a conclusion out of his experiment. This has to be based on logic and rationality to come up with specific unbiased results.For example: In the experiment, if the tagged flowers in a different temperature environment do not change the color then it can be concluded that temperature plays a role in changing the color of the bloom.
Testing: This phase involves the researcher to return to empirical methods to put his hypothesis to the test. The researcher now needs to make sense of his data and hence needs to use statistical analysis plans to determine the temperature and bloom color relationship. If the researcher finds out that most flowers bloom a different color when exposed to the certain temperature and the others do not when the temperature is different, he has found support to his hypothesis. Please note this not proof but just a support to his hypothesis.
Evaluation: This phase is generally forgotten by most but is an important one to keep gaining knowledge. During this phase the researcher puts forth the data he has collected, the support argument and his conclusion. The researcher also states the limitations for the experiment and his hypothesis and suggests tips for others to pick it up and continue a more in-depth research for others in the future. LEARN MORE: Population vs Sample

LEARN MORE: Population vs Sample

There is a reason why empirical research is one of the most widely used method. There are a few advantages associated with it. Following are a few of them.

It is used to authenticate traditional research through various experiments and observations.
This research methodology makes the research being conducted more competent and authentic.
It enables a researcher understand the dynamic changes that can happen and change his strategy accordingly.
The level of control in such a research is high so the researcher can control multiple variables.
It plays a vital role in increasing internal validity .

Even though empirical research makes the research more competent and authentic, it does have a few disadvantages. Following are a few of them.

Such a research needs patience as it can be very time consuming. The researcher has to collect data from multiple sources and the parameters involved are quite a few, which will lead to a time consuming research.
Most of the time, a researcher will need to conduct research at different locations or in different environments, this can lead to an expensive affair.
There are a few rules in which experiments can be performed and hence permissions are needed. Many a times, it is very difficult to get certain permissions to carry out different methods of this research.
Collection of data can be a problem sometimes, as it has to be collected from a variety of sources through different methods.

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Empirical research is important in today’s world because most people believe in something only that they can see, hear or experience. It is used to validate multiple hypothesis and increase human knowledge and continue doing it to keep advancing in various fields.

For example: Pharmaceutical companies use empirical research to try out a specific drug on controlled groups or random groups to study the effect and cause. This way, they prove certain theories they had proposed for the specific drug. Such research is very important as sometimes it can lead to finding a cure for a disease that has existed for many years. It is useful in science and many other fields like history, social sciences, business, etc.

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With the advancement in today’s world, empirical research has become critical and a norm in many fields to support their hypothesis and gain more knowledge. The methods mentioned above are very useful for carrying out such research. However, a number of new methods will keep coming up as the nature of new investigative questions keeps getting unique or changing.

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Methodology

Descriptive Research | Definition, Types, Methods & Examples

Descriptive Research | Definition, Types, Methods & Examples

Published on May 15, 2019 by Shona McCombes . Revised on June 22, 2023.

Descriptive research aims to accurately and systematically describe a population, situation or phenomenon. It can answer what , where , when and how questions , but not why questions.

A descriptive research design can use a wide variety of research methods to investigate one or more variables . Unlike in experimental research , the researcher does not control or manipulate any of the variables, but only observes and measures them.

When to use a descriptive research design, descriptive research methods, other interesting articles.

Descriptive research is an appropriate choice when the research aim is to identify characteristics, frequencies, trends, and categories.

It is useful when not much is known yet about the topic or problem. Before you can research why something happens, you need to understand how, when and where it happens.

Descriptive research question examples

How has the Amsterdam housing market changed over the past 20 years?
Do customers of company X prefer product X or product Y?
What are the main genetic, behavioural and morphological differences between European wildcats and domestic cats?
What are the most popular online news sources among under-18s?
How prevalent is disease A in population B?

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Descriptive research is usually defined as a type of quantitative research , though qualitative research can also be used for descriptive purposes. The research design should be carefully developed to ensure that the results are valid and reliable .

Survey research allows you to gather large volumes of data that can be analyzed for frequencies, averages and patterns. Common uses of surveys include:

Describing the demographics of a country or region
Gauging public opinion on political and social topics
Evaluating satisfaction with a company’s products or an organization’s services

Observations

Observations allow you to gather data on behaviours and phenomena without having to rely on the honesty and accuracy of respondents. This method is often used by psychological, social and market researchers to understand how people act in real-life situations.

Observation of physical entities and phenomena is also an important part of research in the natural sciences. Before you can develop testable hypotheses , models or theories, it’s necessary to observe and systematically describe the subject under investigation.

Case studies

A case study can be used to describe the characteristics of a specific subject (such as a person, group, event or organization). Instead of gathering a large volume of data to identify patterns across time or location, case studies gather detailed data to identify the characteristics of a narrowly defined subject.

Rather than aiming to describe generalizable facts, case studies often focus on unusual or interesting cases that challenge assumptions, add complexity, or reveal something new about a research problem .

If you want to know more about statistics , methodology , or research bias , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

Normal distribution
Degrees of freedom
Null hypothesis
Discourse analysis
Control groups
Mixed methods research
Non-probability sampling
Quantitative research
Ecological validity

Research bias

Rosenthal effect
Implicit bias
Cognitive bias
Selection bias
Negativity bias
Status quo bias

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Empirical research is based on phenomena that can be observed and measured. Empirical research derives knowledge from actual experience rather than from theory or belief.

Key characteristics of empirical research include:

Specific research questions to be answered;
Definitions of the population, behavior, or phenomena being studied;
Description of the methodology or research design used to study this population or phenomena, including selection criteria, controls, and testing instruments (such as surveys);
Two basic research processes or methods in empirical research: quantitative methods and qualitative methods (see the rest of the guide for more about these methods).

(based on the original from the Connelly LIbrary of LaSalle University)

Empirical Research: Qualitative vs. Quantitative

Learn about common types of journal articles that use APA Style, including empirical studies; meta-analyses; literature reviews; and replication, theoretical, and methodological articles.

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Quantitative Research

A quantitative research project is characterized by having a population about which the researcher wants to draw conclusions, but it is not possible to collect data on the entire population.

For an observational study, it is necessary to select a proper, statistical random sample and to use methods of statistical inference to draw conclusions about the population.
For an experimental study, it is necessary to have a random assignment of subjects to experimental and control groups in order to use methods of statistical inference.

Statistical methods are used in all three stages of a quantitative research project.

For observational studies, the data are collected using statistical sampling theory. Then, the sample data are analyzed using descriptive statistical analysis. Finally, generalizations are made from the sample data to the entire population using statistical inference.

For experimental studies, the subjects are allocated to experimental and control group using randomizing methods. Then, the experimental data are analyzed using descriptive statistical analysis. Finally, just as for observational data, generalizations are made to a larger population.

Iversen, G. (2004). Quantitative research . In M. Lewis-Beck, A. Bryman, & T. Liao (Eds.), Encyclopedia of social science research methods . (pp. 897-898). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, Inc.

Qualitative Research

What makes a work deserving of the label qualitative research is the demonstrable effort to produce richly and relevantly detailed descriptions and particularized interpretations of people and the social, linguistic, material, and other practices and events that shape and are shaped by them.

Qualitative research typically includes, but is not limited to, discerning the perspectives of these people, or what is often referred to as the actor’s point of view. Although both philosophically and methodologically a highly diverse entity, qualitative research is marked by certain defining imperatives that include its case (as opposed to its variable) orientation, sensitivity to cultural and historical context, and reflexivity.

In its many guises, qualitative research is a form of empirical inquiry that typically entails some form of purposive sampling for information-rich cases; in-depth interviews and open-ended interviews, lengthy participant/field observations, and/or document or artifact study; and techniques for analysis and interpretation of data that move beyond the data generated and their surface appearances.

Sandelowski, M. (2004). Qualitative research . In M. Lewis-Beck, A. Bryman, & T. Liao (Eds.), Encyclopedia of social science research methods . (pp. 893-894). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, Inc.

Next: Quantitative vs. Qualitative >>
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Home » Education » Difference Between Descriptive and Experimental Research

Difference Between Descriptive and Experimental Research

The main difference between descriptive and experimental research is that the descriptive research describes the characteristics of the study group or a certain occurrence while the experimental research manipulates the variables to arrive at conclusions.

Descriptive research and experimental research are two types of research people use when doing varied research studies. Both these research types have their own methods that facilitate the researcher to gain maximum outcomes.

Key Areas Covered

1. What is Descriptive Research – Definition, Aim, Methods 2. What is Experimental Research – Definition, Aim, Methods 3. What is the Difference Between Descriptive and Experimental Research – Comparison of Key Differences

Descriptive Research, Experimental Research, Research

Difference Between Descriptive and Experimental Research - Comparison Summary

What is Descriptive Research

Descriptive research is a type of research that studies the participants that take part in the research or a certain situation. Descriptive research does not limit to either of quantitative or qualitative research methodologies, but instead, it uses elements of both, often within the same study. Therefore, a descriptive researcher often uses three major ways to collect and analyse the data. They are observations, case studies and surveys.

Descriptive studies are aimed at finding out “what is,” therefore, observational and survey methods are frequently used to collect descriptive data (Borg & Gall, 1989). Thus, the main focus of descriptive research is to answer the question ‘what’ with concern to the study group. Moreover, descriptive research, primarily concerned with finding out “what is,” that might be applied to investigate the particular study group or the situation. Therefore, descriptive research does not give answers to the cause and effect of the particular occurrence that is studied.

Difference Between Descriptive and Experimental Research

Therefore, descriptive research assists to make specific conclusions regarding situations such as marketing products according to the needs of the customers, to estimate the percentages of units in a specified population according to a certain behaviour, etc. Some examples of descriptive researches include population census and product marketing surveys.

What is Experimental Research?

Experimental research is the research study where the scientist actively influences something to observe the consequences. Experimental research uses manipulation and controlled testing to understand causal processes. Therefore, in this type of research, the researcher manipulates one given variable and controls the others to come to a conclusion.

This type of research typically includes a hypothesis, a variable that can be manipulated, measured, calculated and compared. Eventually, the collected data and results will either support or reject the hypothesis of the researcher. Therefore, one could call this research type as a true experiment.

Main Difference - Descriptive vs Experimental Research

In this research type, the researcher manipulates the independent variables such as treatment method and teaching methodology, and measures the impact it has on the dependent variables such as cure and student comprehension in order to establish a cause-effect relationship between these two variables. Therefore, this research type can answer the questions of cause, effect and results, thus, making it possible to make hypothetical assumptions based on the gathered data. Therefore, unlike descriptive research which answers’ what is’, experimental research answers the question ‘what if’. Therefore, usually, this type of research uses quantitative data collection methodology.

Evidently, this type of research is mostly conducted in a controlled environment, usually a laboratory. Experimental research is mostly used in sciences such as sociology and psychology, physics, chemistry, biology, medicine, etc.

Descriptive research is the type of research where characteristics of the study group or a certain occurrence are described while experimental research is the research type that manipulates variables to come to a conclusion. This is the main difference between descriptive and experimental research.

Descriptive research is useful in gathering data on a certain population or a specific occurrence while experimental research is useful in finding out the cause-effect of a causal relationship, correlation etc

The aim of the descriptive research is to describe the characteristics of the study group, thus answering the question ‘what is’ while the aim of the experimental research is to manipulate the given variables so as to support or reject the assumed hypothesis. Hence it answers the question ‘what if’.

Type of Studies

Descriptive research typically includes sociological and psychological studies while experimental research typically includes forensic studies, biological and other laboratory studies, etc.

Data Collection

Descriptive research uses both qualitative and quantitative methodologies while experimental research primarily uses quantitative methodology.

Descriptive and experimental research are two significant types of research. Both these research types are helpful in analysing certain occurrences and study groups. The main difference between descriptive and experimental research is that descriptive research describes the characteristics of the research subject while the experimental research manipulates the research subject or the variables to come to a conclusion. Similarly, descriptive research answers the question ‘what is’ while experimental research answers the question ‘what if’.

1. “Descriptive Research.” Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 19 June 2018, Available here . 2. “WHAT IS DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH?”, The Handbook of Research for Educational Communications and Technologies, Available here . 3. ” Descriptive Research Design: Definition, Examples & Types” Study.com, Available here . 4. “Experimental Research – A Guide to Scientific Experiments.” Observation Bias, Available here . 5. Wattoo, Shafqat. “Experimental Research.” LinkedIn SlideShare, 3 Feb. 2012, Available here .

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1. “Survey” (Public Domain) via PublicDomainPictures.net 2. “Experiment Pasteur English” By Carmel830 – Own work (Public Domain) via Commons Wikimedia

About the Author: Upen

Upen, BA (Honours) in Languages and Linguistics, has academic experiences and knowledge on international relations and politics. Her academic interests are English language, European and Oriental Languages, Internal Affairs and International Politics, and Psychology.

Descriptive vs experimental research

October 7, 2021

Exclusive Step by Step guide to Descriptive Research

Get ready to uncover the how, when, what, and where questions in a research problem

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Descriptive research and experimental research are both types of quantitative research. Quantitative research refers to the process of analyzing data in its numeric form. The objective of quantitative research is to examine social phenomena by collecting objective data.

But there is a difference in the way descriptive research and experimental research are performed and the insights they deliver. We will explore how different the two research types are from one another.

Before we jump into exploring descriptive vs experimental research, let’s define the two types.

What is Descriptive Research?

Descriptive research is a method to describe the demographics of the research variables. The demographics being “why, what, when, how” regarding the subject variable. Rather than limiting its approach to qualitative or quantitative, descriptive research is mostly observational. The reason being obvious, the variables are not influenced by any external variables and are observed to derive results from it.

Descriptive research aims to statistically analyze the data collected through observations and surveys or case studies. The variables that are being observed are not controlled. As descriptive research digs out the patterns in the data, it helps researchers get future insights depending on the pattern.

Methods of descriptive research:

Observation – as the name suggests, this includes observing a variable in the study. It can be qualitative or quantitative in nature. Quantitative observations will give data that is numerically represented, whereas qualitative observations are more brief and long to analyze.

For example, a company owner decides to implement new soft skill training among the employees. After the training is over he observes their speech and performance to figure out how effective the training program was.

Surveys – are the most common form of gathering feedback from the customers. This includes questionnaires regarding the topic which the responders will answer. It can be conducted online as well as offline and provides vast areas of channels to circulate them through.

The main advantage of surveys is that it gets your hands on large amounts of data in a short time span.

For example, a company owner wants to get feedback on a recent meeting. He will ask both open-ended as well as close-ended questions.

Case studies – it is a deep study of an individual or group. It helps your frame hypothesis or theories. As it studies a natural phenomenon, researchers’ biases are avoided. Another reason is, a not-so-genuine responder. It would be unfair to study this responder who is a lot different from the general population and then generalize his results to the entire population.

For example, a company owner studies an employee who travels far to come to the office. He may have a different experience with his traveling and its effect on his work, then the other employees.

What is Experimental Research?

Experimental research is a scientific approach to dealing with two or more variables. It is basically an experiment conducted to bring out the cause-effect relationship between those variables.

The experiment has two groups, a treatment group, and a control group. A researcher starts an experiment by keeping a problem statement in mind, and that includes a control variable. The treatment group undergoes the changes that the researcher wants to experiment with, and the control group doesn’t go through any treatment. At the end of the experiment, the researcher concludes how the independent variable affects the dependent variable when the course is changed.

Experimental research aims to help you make meaningful insights out of the gathered data. It is useful in testing your hypothesis and making decisions about it. Experimental research is said to be successful when the manipulation of the independent variable brings about a change in the variable that is under study.

Methods of experimental research:

Pre-experimental Design

It is sort of a dry run before a true experiment takes place. It studies one or two groups when they are put under the researcher’s treatment. This gives an idea of whether the treatment will solve the problem at hand or not. And if yes, then what is the right way to carry out the experiment when it actually takes place.

The 3 kinds are;

One-shot case study research design
One-group pretest-posttest research design
Static group comparison

[Related read: Pre-experimental Design ]

True-experimental Research Design

It is hypothesis-testing research, which at the end of the study, will either support or refute the hypothesis. You can say this research is based on the foreground of the pre-experimental research.

True experiments work on hypothesis testing with the help of independent and dependent variables, pre-testing and post-testing, treatment groups and control groups, and control variables. In addition to that, the samples are selected at random.

For example, a teacher wants to know the average maths marks of her class. She will randomly select students to take the math test.

Quasi-experimental Research

It is similar to a true experiment but surely not the same. Just like true experiments, it also includes independent and dependent variables, pre-tests and post-tests, and treatment and control groups.

The major difference is that it does not include randomization of samples and control variables. As a result of which, the participants are assigned to the experimental groups through a study that decides which participants to put in which experimental group.

For example, a teacher wants to know how her class is doing in math, but more importantly, she wants to study the students that have an average score on a math test. So she will select only those students who have an average score in math.

Descriptive Vs. Experimental Research

Definition .

Descriptive research is a method that describes a study or a topic. It defines the characteristics of the variable under research and answers the questions related to it.

Whereas experimental research is a scientific approach to testing a theory or a hypothesis using experimental groups and control variables.

Descriptive research will help you gather data on a subject or understand a population or group.

Experimental research will help you establish a cause-effect relationship between two or more variables.

Descriptive research aims towards studying the demographics related to a subject group. Experimental research aims to test hypotheses and theories, which include cause-effect variables.

Descriptive research is sociological and psychological in nature.

Experimental research uses a more scientific experimental approach to test the problems.

Both of them differ in terms of external interventions. Descriptive research doesn’t face any, while experimental research has control variables.

Method to gather data

In descriptive research , the study can be done by collecting qualitative and quantitative data types.

But when it comes to experimental research , the data has to be quantitative in nature.

Descriptive Vs. Experimental Research: Comparison Chart


	Uses observation to measure attributes & behavior.	Manipulates variables to reach conclusions.
	Simple.	Complicate.
	What?	Why?
	Identify the characteristics	Focus is on hypothesis
	Easy	Hard

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Conclusion;

Despite falling under the types of quantitative research, descriptive research & experimental research differ significantly. This concludes all points of difference between the two research types. Next time you have to decide which research method, you can refer to this blog.

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The main difference between the two is that – descriptive research is a qualitative or quantitative approach dedicated to observing the variable demographics under its natural habitat. While experimental research includes a scientific quantitative approach to test hypotheses and theories using control variables.

One example can be, a software company wants to develop a new shopping application. For that, they will observe the regular shopping experiences of the customers and what are current options they are preferring. Second example can be a researcher who wants to study social media experiences for different people belonging to different age groups.

Two things that will differentiate the two prime research methodologies can be:

Descriptive research deals with observation and no external intervention while experimental research totally depends on the intervention. This intervention is caused by manipulation of the independent variable.
The use of descriptive research is done when you want to observe a certain group or an individual while experimental research is used when you have a theory and you want to test it out by experimenting on the variables.

For instance, a new teaching strategy for math is tested for its effects. A random selection of students is done to undergo the special training for the subject. At the end of the training, results of the math tests are compared with the results before the training program. This will let the management know how effective the training is.

It has dependent and independent variables that give the cause-effect relationship between the variables.
It has pre-test and post-test study to compare the results of the experiment before the treatment and after the treatment.
Random sampling helps both the treatment group and control groups to have equal quality of participants.

As descriptive research is an observational and experimental research is, well, experiment based, both have their own importance depending on the research problem. Use descriptive research when you just have to observe a group in its environment and develop an understanding on the subject. Use experimental research when you have to test a hypothesis or establish a cause-effect relation between two or more variables.

Experimental research includes independent and dependent variables, it compares the pretest and post-tests while including randomization of samples and control variables. While non-experimental research doesn’t have randomization of the samples and it doesn’t manipulate the independent variables even if it is about establishing causal relationships between the variables.

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What is Descriptive Research and How is it Used?

Introduction

What does descriptive research mean, why would you use a descriptive research design, what are the characteristics of descriptive research, examples of descriptive research, what are the data collection methods in descriptive research, how do you analyze descriptive research data, ensuring validity and reliability in the findings.

Conducting descriptive research offers researchers a way to present phenomena as they naturally occur. Rooted in an open-ended and non-experimental nature, this type of research focuses on portraying the details of specific phenomena or contexts, helping readers gain a clearer understanding of topics of interest.

From businesses gauging customer satisfaction to educators assessing classroom dynamics, the data collected from descriptive research provides invaluable insights across various fields.

This article aims to illuminate the essence, utility, characteristics, and methods associated with descriptive research, guiding those who wish to harness its potential in their respective domains.

At its core, descriptive research refers to a systematic approach used by researchers to collect, analyze, and present data about real-life phenomena to describe it in its natural context. It primarily aims to describe what exists, based on empirical observations .

Unlike experimental research, where variables are manipulated to observe outcomes, descriptive research deals with the "as-is" scenario to facilitate further research by providing a framework or new insights on which continuing studies can build.

Definition of descriptive research

Descriptive research is defined as a research method that observes and describes the characteristics of a particular group, situation, or phenomenon.

The goal is not to establish cause and effect relationships but rather to provide a detailed account of the situation.

The difference between descriptive and exploratory research

While both descriptive and exploratory research seek to provide insights into a topic or phenomenon, they differ in their focus. Exploratory research is more about investigating a topic to develop preliminary insights or to identify potential areas of interest.

In contrast, descriptive research offers detailed accounts and descriptions of the observed phenomenon, seeking to paint a full picture of what's happening.

The evolution of descriptive research in academia

Historically, descriptive research has played a foundational role in numerous academic disciplines. Anthropologists, for instance, used this approach to document cultures and societies. Psychologists have employed it to capture behaviors, emotions, and reactions.

Over time, the method has evolved, incorporating technological advancements and adapting to contemporary needs, yet its essence remains rooted in describing a phenomenon or setting as it is.

Descriptive research serves as a cornerstone in the research landscape for its ability to provide a detailed snapshot of life. Its unique qualities and methods make it an invaluable method for various research purposes. Here's why:

Benefits of obtaining a clear picture

Descriptive research captures the present state of phenomena, offering researchers a detailed reflection of situations. This unaltered representation is crucial for sectors like marketing, where understanding current consumer behavior can shape future strategies.

Facilitating data interpretation

Given its straightforward nature, descriptive research can provide data that's easier to interpret, both for researchers and their audiences. Rather than analyzing complex statistical relationships among variables, researchers present detailed descriptions of their qualitative observations . Researchers can engage in in depth analysis relating to their research question , but audiences can also draw insights from their own interpretations or reflections on potential underlying patterns.

Enhancing the clarity of the research problem

By presenting things as they are, descriptive research can help elucidate ambiguous research questions. A well-executed descriptive study can shine light on overlooked aspects of a problem, paving the way for further investigative research.

Addressing practical problems

In real-world scenarios, it's not always feasible to manipulate variables or set up controlled experiments. For instance, in social sciences, understanding cultural norms without interference is paramount. Descriptive research allows for such non-intrusive insights, ensuring genuine understanding.

Building a foundation for future research

Often, descriptive studies act as stepping stones for more complex research endeavors. By establishing baseline data and highlighting patterns, they create a platform upon which more intricate hypotheses can be built and tested in subsequent studies.

Descriptive research is distinguished by a set of hallmark characteristics that set it apart from other research methodologies . Recognizing these features can help researchers effectively design, implement , and interpret descriptive studies.

Specificity in the research question

As with all research, descriptive research starts with a well-defined research question aiming to detail a particular phenomenon. The specificity ensures that the study remains focused on gathering relevant data without unnecessary deviations.

Focus on the present situation

While some research methods aim to predict future trends or uncover historical truths, descriptive research is predominantly concerned with the present. It seeks to capture the current state of affairs, such as understanding today's consumer habits or documenting a newly observed phenomenon.

Standardized and structured methodology

To ensure credibility and consistency in results, descriptive research often employs standardized methods. Whether it's using a fixed set of survey questions or adhering to specific observation protocols, this structured approach ensures that data is collected uniformly, making it easier to compare and analyze.

Non-manipulative approach in observation

One of the standout features of descriptive research is its non-invasive nature. Researchers observe and document without influencing the research subject or the environment. This passive stance ensures that the data gathered is a genuine reflection of the phenomenon under study.

Replicability and consistency in results

Due to its structured methodology, findings from descriptive research can often be replicated in different settings or with different samples. This consistency adds to the credibility of the results, reinforcing the validity of the insights drawn from the study.

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Numerous fields and sectors conduct descriptive research for its versatile and detailed nature. Through its focus on presenting things as they naturally occur, it provides insights into a myriad of scenarios. Here are some tangible examples from diverse domains:

Conducting market research

Businesses often turn to data analysis through descriptive research to understand the demographics of their target market. For instance, a company launching a new product might survey potential customers to understand their age, gender, income level, and purchasing habits, offering valuable data for targeted marketing strategies.

Evaluating employee behaviors

Organizations rely on descriptive research designs to assess the behavior and attitudes of their employees. By conducting observations or surveys , companies can gather data on workplace satisfaction, collaboration patterns, or the impact of a new office layout on productivity.

Understanding consumer preferences

Brands aiming to understand their consumers' likes and dislikes often use descriptive research. By observing shopping behaviors or conducting product feedback surveys , they can gauge preferences and adjust their offerings accordingly.

Documenting historical patterns

Historians and anthropologists employ descriptive research to identify patterns through analysis of events or cultural practices. For instance, a historian might detail the daily life in a particular era, while an anthropologist might document rituals and ceremonies of a specific tribe.

Assessing student performance

Educational researchers can utilize descriptive studies to understand the effectiveness of teaching methodologies. By observing classrooms or surveying students, they can measure data trends and gauge the impact of a new teaching technique or curriculum on student engagement and performance.

Descriptive research methods aim to authentically represent situations and phenomena. These techniques ensure the collection of comprehensive and reliable data about the subject of interest.

The most appropriate descriptive research method depends on the research question and resources available for your research study.

Surveys and questionnaires

One of the most familiar tools in the researcher's arsenal, surveys and questionnaires offer a structured means of collecting data from a vast audience. Through carefully designed questions, researchers can obtain standardized responses that lend themselves to straightforward comparison and analysis in quantitative and qualitative research .

Survey research can manifest in various formats, from face-to-face interactions and telephone conversations to digital platforms. While surveys can reach a broad audience and generate quantitative data ripe for statistical analysis, they also come with the challenge of potential biases in design and rely heavily on respondent honesty.

Observations and case studies

Direct or participant observation is a method wherein researchers actively watch and document behaviors or events. A researcher might, for instance, observe the dynamics within a classroom or the behaviors of shoppers in a market setting.

Case studies provide an even deeper dive, focusing on a thorough analysis of a specific individual, group, or event. These methods present the advantage of capturing real-time, detailed data, but they might also be time-intensive and can sometimes introduce observer bias .

Interviews and focus groups

Interviews , whether they follow a structured script or flow more organically, are a powerful means to extract detailed insights directly from participants. On the other hand, focus groups gather multiple participants for discussions, aiming to gather diverse and collective opinions on a particular topic or product.

These methods offer the benefit of deep insights and adaptability in data collection . However, they necessitate skilled interviewers, and focus group settings might see individual opinions being influenced by group dynamics.

Document and content analysis

Here, instead of generating new data, researchers examine existing documents or content . This can range from studying historical records and newspapers to analyzing media content or literature.

Analyzing existing content offers the advantage of accessibility and can provide insights over longer time frames. However, the reliability and relevance of the content are paramount, and researchers must approach this method with a discerning eye.

Descriptive research data, rich in details and insights, necessitates meticulous analysis to derive meaningful conclusions. The analysis process transforms raw data into structured findings that can be communicated and acted upon.

Qualitative content analysis

For data collected through interviews , focus groups , observations , or open-ended survey questions , qualitative content analysis is a popular choice. This involves examining non-numerical data to identify patterns, themes, or categories.

By coding responses or observations , researchers can identify recurring elements, making it easier to comprehend larger data sets and draw insights.

Using descriptive statistics

When dealing with quantitative data from surveys or experiments, descriptive statistics are invaluable. Measures such as mean, median, mode, standard deviation, and frequency distributions help summarize data sets, providing a snapshot of the overall patterns.

Graphical representations like histograms, pie charts, or bar graphs can further help in visualizing these statistics.

Coding and categorizing the data

Both qualitative and quantitative data often require coding. Coding involves assigning labels to specific responses or behaviors to group similar segments of data. This categorization aids in identifying patterns, especially in vast data sets.

For instance, responses to open-ended questions in a survey can be coded based on keywords or sentiments, allowing for a more structured analysis.

Visual representation through graphs and charts

Visual aids like graphs, charts, and plots can simplify complex data, making it more accessible and understandable. Whether it's showcasing frequency distributions through histograms or mapping out relationships with networks, visual representations can elucidate trends and patterns effectively.

In the realm of research , the credibility of findings is paramount. Without trustworthiness in the results, even the most meticulously gathered data can lose its value. Two cornerstones that bolster the credibility of research outcomes are validity and reliability .

Validity: Measuring the right thing

Validity addresses the accuracy of the research. It seeks to answer the question: Is the research genuinely measuring what it aims to measure? In descriptive research, where the objective is to paint an authentic picture of the current state of affairs, ensuring validity is crucial.

For instance, if a study aims to understand consumer preferences for a product category, the questions posed should genuinely reflect those preferences and not veer into unrelated territories. Multiple forms of validity, including content, criterion, and construct validity, can be examined to ensure that the research instruments and processes are aligned with the research goals.

Reliability: Consistency in findings

Reliability, on the other hand, pertains to the consistency of the research findings. When a study demonstrates reliability, this suggests that others could repeat the study and the outcomes would remain consistent across repetitions.

In descriptive research, factors like the clarity of survey questions , the training of observers , and the standardization of interview protocols play a role in enhancing reliability. Techniques such as test-retest and internal consistency measurements can be employed to assess and improve reliability.

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Research Methods

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Quantitative vs. Qualitative Research: The Differences Explained

From Scribbr

Empirical Research

What is empirical research.

"Empirical research is research that is based on observation and measurement of phenomena, as directly experienced by the researcher. The data thus gathered may be compared against a theory or hypothesis, but the results are still based on real life experience. The data gathered is all primary data, although secondary data from a literature review may form the theoretical background."

Characteristics of Empirical Research

Emerald Publishing's guide to conducting empirical research identifies a number of common elements to empirical research:

A research question , which will determine research objectives.

A particular and planned design for the research, which will depend on the question and which will find ways of answering it with appropriate use of resources.

The gathering of primary data , which is then analysed.

A particular methodology for collecting and analysing the data, such as an experiment or survey.

The limitation of the data to a particular group, area or time scale, known as a sample [emphasis added]: for example, a specific number of employees of a particular company type, or all users of a library over a given time scale. The sample should be somehow representative of a wider population.

The ability to recreate the study and test the results. This is known as reliability .

The ability to generalize from the findings to a larger sample and to other situations.

If you see these elements in a research article, you can feel confident that you have found empirical research. Emerald's guide goes into more detail on each element.

Emerald Publishing (n.d.). How to... conduct empirical research. https://www.emeraldgrouppublishing.com/how-to/research-methods/conduct-empirical-research-l

Quantitative vs. Qualitative
Data Collection Methods
Analyzing Data

When collecting and analyzing data, quantitative research deals with numbers and statistics, while qualitative research deals with words and meanings. Both are important for gaining different kinds of knowledge.

Quantitative research

Common quantitative methods include experiments, observations recorded as numbers, and surveys with closed-ended questions.

Qualitative research

Common qualitative methods include interviews with open-ended questions, observations described in words, and literature reviews that explore concepts and theories.

Streefkerk, R. (2022, February 7). Qualitative vs. quantitative research: Differences, examples & methods. Scibbr. https://www.scribbr.com/methodology/qualitative-quantitative-research/

Quantitative and qualitative data can be collected using various methods. It is important to use a data collection method that will help answer your research question(s).

Many data collection methods can be either qualitative or quantitative. For example, in surveys, observations or case studies , your data can be represented as numbers (e.g. using rating scales or counting frequencies) or as words (e.g. with open-ended questions or descriptions of what you observe).

However, some methods are more commonly used in one type or the other.

Quantitative data collection methods

Surveys : List of closed or multiple choice questions that is distributed to a sample (online, in person, or over the phone).
Experiments : Situation in which variables are controlled and manipulated to establish cause-and-effect relationships.
Observations: Observing subjects in a natural environment where variables can’t be controlled.

Qualitative data collection methods

Interviews : Asking open-ended questions verbally to respondents.
Focus groups: Discussion among a group of people about a topic to gather opinions that can be used for further research.
Ethnography : Participating in a community or organization for an extended period of time to closely observe culture and behavior.
Literature review : Survey of published works by other authors.

When to use qualitative vs. quantitative research

A rule of thumb for deciding whether to use qualitative or quantitative data is:

Use quantitative research if you want to confirm or test something (a theory or hypothesis)
Use qualitative research if you want to understand something (concepts, thoughts, experiences)

For most research topics you can choose a qualitative, quantitative or mixed methods approach . Which type you choose depends on, among other things, whether you’re taking an inductive vs. deductive research approach ; your research question(s) ; whether you’re doing experimental , correlational , or descriptive research ; and practical considerations such as time, money, availability of data, and access to respondents.

Streefkerk, R. (2022, February 7). Qualitative vs. quantitative research: Differences, examples & methods. Scibbr. https://www.scribbr.com/methodology/qualitative-quantitative-research/

Qualitative or quantitative data by itself can’t prove or demonstrate anything, but has to be analyzed to show its meaning in relation to the research questions. The method of analysis differs for each type of data.

Analyzing quantitative data

Quantitative data is based on numbers. Simple math or more advanced statistical analysis is used to discover commonalities or patterns in the data. The results are often reported in graphs and tables.

Applications such as Excel, SPSS, or R can be used to calculate things like:

Average scores
The number of times a particular answer was given
The correlation or causation between two or more variables
The reliability and validity of the results

Analyzing qualitative data

Qualitative data is more difficult to analyze than quantitative data. It consists of text, images or videos instead of numbers.

Some common approaches to analyzing qualitative data include:

Qualitative content analysis : Tracking the occurrence, position and meaning of words or phrases
Thematic analysis : Closely examining the data to identify the main themes and patterns
Discourse analysis : Studying how communication works in social contexts

Comparison of Research Processes

Quantitative Methods	Mixed Methods	Qualitative Methods
Pre-determined methods	Both predetermined and emerging	Emerging methods
Instrument based questions	Both open- and closed-ended questions	Open-ended questions
Performance data, attitude data, observational data, and census data	Multiple forms of data drawing on all possibilities	Interview data, observation data, document data, and audiovisual data
Statistical analysis	Statistical and text analysis	Text and image analysis
Statistical Interpretation	Across databases interpretation	Themes, patterns interpretation

Creswell, J. W., & Creswell, J. D. (2018). Research design : qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches (Fifth). SAGE Publications.

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Empirical & Descriptive Articles: Understanding Findings

Empirical vs. Descriptive
Locating Empirical Articles

Understanding Findings

When reading empirical or descriptive journal articles, start by reviewing the abstract. This will give you a sense for what the article is about and if it will work for your research needs. While reading, watch for keywords.

Next, read through the conclusion, which is usually at the end of the article. Then review the "Methods" section and "Findings."

As you are reading, look up any unfamiliar terms. It is also a good idea to annotate the article. Annotations can be made on a physical copy of the work on using a bibliographic management tool such as Mendeley, linked below.

<< Previous: Locating Empirical Articles
Last Updated: Jun 13, 2023 10:18 AM
URL: https://southern.libguides.com/empirical

Descriptive vs. Analytical Research in Sociology: A Comparative Study

Table of Contents

When we delve into the world of research, particularly in fields like patterns of social relationships , social interaction, and culture.">sociology , we encounter a myriad of methods designed to uncover the layers of human society and behavior. Two of the most fundamental research methods are descriptive and analytical research . Each plays a crucial role in understanding our world, but they do so in distinctly different ways. So, what exactly are these methods, and how do they compare when applied in the realm of social studies? Let’s embark on a comparative journey to understand these methodologies better.

Understanding Descriptive Research

Descriptive research is akin to the meticulous work of an artist attempting to capture the intricate details of a landscape. It aims to accurately describe the characteristics of a particular population or phenomenon. By painting a picture of the ‘what’ aspect, this method helps researchers to understand the prevalence of certain attributes, behaviors, or issues within a group.

Key Features of Descriptive Research

Snapshot in time: It often involves studying a single point or period, providing a snapshot rather than a motion picture.
Surveys and observations : Common tools include surveys , observations, and case studies .
Quantitative data: It leans heavily on quantitative data to present findings in numerical format.
No hypothesis testing: Unlike other research types, it doesn’t typically involve hypothesis testing.

When to Use Descriptive Research

Establishing a baseline : When there’s a need to set a reference point for future studies or track changes over time.
Exploratory purposes: When little is known about a topic and there’s a need to gather initial information that could inform future research.
Policy-making: When organizations or government bodies need factual data to inform decisions and policies.

Exploring Analytical Research

On the flip side, analytical research steps beyond mere description to explore the ‘why’ and ‘how’. It’s like a detective piecing together clues to not just recount events, but to understand the relationships and causations behind them. Analytical researchers critically evaluate information to draw conclusions and generalizations that extend beyond the immediate data.

Key Characteristics of Analytical Research

Critical evaluation: It involves a deep analysis of the available information to form judgments.
Qualitative and quantitative data: Uses both numerical data and non-numerical data for a more comprehensive analysis.
Hypothesis-driven: This method often starts with a hypothesis that the research is designed to test.
Seeking patterns: Aims to identify patterns, relationships, and causations.

When to Opt for Analytical Research

Understanding complexities: When the research question is complex and requires understanding the interplay of various factors.
Building upon previous research: When expanding on existing knowledge or challenging prevailing theories.
Recommendations for action: When research is aimed at providing actionable insights or solutions to problems.

Comparing Descriptive and Analytical Research in Real-World Scenarios

Imagine a sociologist aiming to tackle a pressing social issue, such as the dynamics of homelessness in urban areas. Descriptive research would enable them to establish the scale and scope of homelessness, identifying key demographics and patterns. Analytical research, however, would take these findings and probe deeper into the causes, examining the social, economic, and political factors that contribute to the situation and what can be done to alleviate it.

Advantages and Limitations

Each research type has its own set of strengths and weaknesses. Descriptive research is powerful for mapping out the landscape but may fall short in explaining the underlying reasons for observed phenomena. Analytical research, with its depth, can provide those explanations, but it may be more time-consuming and complex to conduct.

Choosing the Right Approach

Deciding between descriptive and analytical research often comes down to the specific objectives of the study. It’s not uncommon for researchers to employ both methods within the same broader research project to maximize their understanding of a topic.

In conclusion, descriptive and analytical research are two sides of the same coin, offering different lenses through which we can view and interpret the intricacies of social phenomena. By understanding their distinctions and applications, researchers can better design studies that yield rich, actionable insights into the fabric of society.

What do you think? Could a blend of both descriptive and analytical research provide a more holistic understanding of social issues? Are there situations where one method is clearly preferable over the other?

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Research Methodologies & Methods

1 Logic of Inquiry in Social Research

A Science of Society
Comte’s Ideas on the Nature of Sociology
Observation in Social Sciences
Logical Understanding of Social Reality

2 Empirical Approach

Empirical Approach
Rules of Data Collection
Cultural Relativism
Problems Encountered in Data Collection
Difference between Common Sense and Science
What is Ethical?
What is Normal?
Understanding the Data Collected
Managing Diversities in Social Research
Problematising the Object of Study
Conclusion: Return to Good Old Empirical Approach

3 Diverse Logic of Theory Building

Concern with Theory in Sociology
Concepts: Basic Elements of Theories
Why Do We Need Theory?
Hypothesis Description and Experimentation
Controlled Experiment
Designing an Experiment
How to Test a Hypothesis
Sensitivity to Alternative Explanations
Rival Hypothesis Construction
The Use and Scope of Social Science Theory
Theory Building and Researcher’s Values

4 Theoretical Analysis

Premises of Evolutionary and Functional Theories
Critique of Evolutionary and Functional Theories
Turning away from Functionalism
What after Functionalism
Post-modernism
Trends other than Post-modernism

5 Issues of Epistemology

Some Major Concerns of Epistemology
Rationalism
Phenomenology: Bracketing Experience

6 Philosophy of Social Science

Foundations of Science
Science, Modernity, and Sociology
Rethinking Science
Crisis in Foundation

7 Positivism and its Critique

Heroic Science and Origin of Positivism
Early Positivism
Consolidation of Positivism
Critiques of Positivism

8 Hermeneutics

Methodological Disputes in the Social Sciences
Tracing the History of Hermeneutics
Hermeneutics and Sociology
Philosophical Hermeneutics
The Hermeneutics of Suspicion
Phenomenology and Hermeneutics

9 Comparative Method

Relationship with Common Sense; Interrogating Ideological Location
The Historical Context
Elements of the Comparative Approach

10 Feminist Approach

Features of the Feminist Method
Feminist Methods adopt the Reflexive Stance
Feminist Discourse in India

11 Participatory Method

Delineation of Key Features

12 Types of Research

Basic and Applied Research
Descriptive and Analytical Research
Empirical and Exploratory Research
Quantitative and Qualitative Research
Explanatory (Causal) and Longitudinal Research
Experimental and Evaluative Research
Participatory Action Research

13 Methods of Research

Evolutionary Method
Comparative Method
Historical Method
Personal Documents

14 Elements of Research Design

Structuring the Research Process

15 Sampling Methods and Estimation of Sample Size

Classification of Sampling Methods
Sample Size

16 Measures of Central Tendency

Relationship between Mean, Mode, and Median
Choosing a Measure of Central Tendency

17 Measures of Dispersion and Variability

The Variance
The Standard Deviation
Coefficient of Variation

18 Statistical Inference- Tests of Hypothesis

Statistical Inference
Tests of Significance

19 Correlation and Regression

Correlation
Method of Calculating Correlation of Ungrouped Data
Method Of Calculating Correlation Of Grouped Data

20 Survey Method

Rationale of Survey Research Method
History of Survey Research
Defining Survey Research
Sampling and Survey Techniques
Operationalising Survey Research Tools
Advantages and Weaknesses of Survey Research

21 Survey Design

Preliminary Considerations
Stages / Phases in Survey Research
Formulation of Research Question
Survey Research Designs
Sampling Design

22 Survey Instrumentation

Techniques/Instruments for Data Collection
Questionnaire Construction
Issues in Designing a Survey Instrument

23 Survey Execution and Data Analysis

Problems and Issues in Executing Survey Research
Data Analysis
Ethical Issues in Survey Research

24 Field Research – I

History of Field Research
Ethnography
Theme Selection
Gaining Entry in the Field
Key Informants
Participant Observation

25 Field Research – II

Interview its Types and Process
Feminist and Postmodernist Perspectives on Interviewing
Narrative Analysis
Interpretation
Case Study and its Types
Life Histories
Oral History
PRA and RRA Techniques

26 Reliability, Validity and Triangulation

Concepts of Reliability and Validity
Three Types of “Reliability”
Working Towards Reliability
Procedural Validity
Field Research as a Validity Check
Method Appropriate Criteria
Triangulation
Ethical Considerations in Qualitative Research

27 Qualitative Data Formatting and Processing

Qualitative Data Processing and Analysis
Description
Classification
Making Connections
Theoretical Coding
Qualitative Content Analysis

28 Writing up Qualitative Data

Problems of Writing Up
Grasp and Then Render
“Writing Down” and “Writing Up”
Write Early
Writing Styles
First Draft

29 Using Internet and Word Processor

What is Internet and How Does it Work?
Internet Services
Searching on the Web: Search Engines
Accessing and Using Online Information
Online Journals and Texts
Statistical Reference Sites
Data Sources
Uses of E-mail Services in Research

30 Using SPSS for Data Analysis Contents

Introduction
Starting and Exiting SPSS
Creating a Data File
Univariate Analysis
Bivariate Analysis

31 Using SPSS in Report Writing

Why to Use SPSS
Working with SPSS Output
Copying SPSS Output to MS Word Document

32 Tabulation and Graphic Presentation- Case Studies

Structure for Presentation of Research Findings
Data Presentation: Editing, Coding, and Transcribing
Case Studies
Qualitative Data Analysis and Presentation through Software
Types of ICT used for Research

33 Guidelines to Research Project Assignment

Overview of Research Methodologies and Methods (MSO 002)
Research Project Objectives
Preparation for Research Project
Stages of the Research Project
Supervision During the Research Project
Submission of Research Project
Methodology for Evaluating Research Project

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Difference between Descriptive Research and Experimental Research

Descriptive research is a method that focuses on detailing and explaining the characteristics of the subject being studied. It aims to answer questions about who, what, where, and when regarding the topic. On the other hand, experimental research is a scientific method used to test a theory or hypothesis by manipulating certain variables and observing the effects. This approach typically involves comparing an experimental group, which experiences the manipulation, with a control group that does not.

Descriptive Research

Descriptive research refers to research which describes a phenomenon or else a group under study and it is easy to do in social sciences due to manipulating variables. It is mainly useful for gathering data on a certain population, situations and events. Descriptive research is more towards collecting data and try to find out some insight out of that data using statistical analysis.

Example of descriptive research includes population census and product marketing surveys etc.

Experimental Research

Experimental research refers to research where the researcher manipulates the variable to come to an conclusion or finding and it is difficult to do in social sciences due to manipulating variables. It is useful in finding out the cause effect of a casual relationship and correlation. Experimental research is also do this same sort of analysis but also it always analyzes where the data of an experiment comes from.

Example of experimental research includes laboratory experiments.

S.NO.	DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH	EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
	Descriptive research refers to research which describes a phenomenon or else a group under study.	Experimental research refers to research where the researcher manipulates the variable to come to an conclusion or finding.
	Descriptive research is easy to do in social sciences due to manipulating variables.	Experimental research is difficult to do in social sciences due to manipulating variables.
	It is useful in gathering data on a certain population, situations and events.	It is useful in finding out the cause effect of a casual relationship and correlation.
	In descriptive research the researcher observe the things, situation or events and describes the best of it.	In experimental research the researcher researches the things mainly in closed environment or laboratory and results the best output of it.
	Descriptive research cannot determine the causality of events and as such cannot make future predictions.	Experimental research accurately determines causality and therefore can make future predictions.
	Mainly Descriptive research tries to answer the question “What is”.	Mainly Experimental research tries to answer the question “What if”.
	Descriptive research typically includes sociological and psychological, political science studies.	Experimental research typically includes biological, forensic studies, other laboratory studies.
	It uses both quantitative and qualitative methodologies.	It primarily uses quantitative methodology.
	Descriptive research is more towards collecting data and try to find out some insight out of that data using statistical analysis.	Experimental research is also do this same sort of analysis but also it always analyzes where the data of an experiment comes from.

Frequently Asked Questions on Descriptive Research vs Experimental Research – FAQs

1. what is the difference between descriptive correlational and experimental research.

Experimental research uses the independent variable to determine how it impacts the dependent variable, whereas descriptive correlational research simply describes the relationship between variables.

2. Is descriptive research qualitative or quantitative?

Descriptive research is typically classified as a sort of quantitative research, but qualitative research can also be utilized for descriptive purposes.

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Key Differences

Know the Differences & Comparisons

Difference Between Exploratory and Descriptive Research

The research design is defined as a framework for carrying out research activities in different fields of study. The research design is classified into two important categories i.e. exploratory and conclusive research. Conclusive research is further subdivided into descriptive and casual research. The people often juxtapose exploratory research and descriptive research, but the fact is that they are different.

Take a read of this article to understand the differences between exploratory and descriptive research.

Content: Exploratory Research Vs Descriptive Research

Comparison chart.

Basis for Comparison	Exploratory Research	Descriptive Research
Meaning	Explorartory research means a research conducted for formulating a problem for more clear investigation.	Descriptive research is a research that explore and explain an individual, group or a situation.
Objective	Discovery of ideas and thoughts.	Describe characteristics and functions.
Overall Design	Flexible	Rigid
Research process	Unstructured	Structured
Sampling	Non-probability sampling	Probability sampling
Statistical Design	No pre-planned design for analysis.	Pre-planned design for analysis.

Definition of Exploratory Research

As the name implies, the primary objective of exploratory research is to explore a problem to provide insights into and comprehension for more precise investigation. It focuses on the discovery of ideas and thoughts. The exploratory research design is suitable for studies which are flexible enough to provide an opportunity for considering all the aspects of the problem.

At this point, the required information is loosely defined, and the research process is flexible and unstructured. It is used in the situation when you must define the problem correctly, identify alternative courses of actions, develop a hypothesis, gain additional insights before the development of an approach, set priorities for further examination. The following methods are used for conducting exploratory research

Survey of concerning literature
Experience survey
Analysis of insights stimulating

Definition of Descriptive Research

By the term descriptive research, we mean a type of conclusive research study which is concerned with describing the characteristics of a particular individual or group. It includes research related to specific predictions, features or functions of person or group, the narration of facts, etc.

The descriptive research aims at obtaining complete and accurate information for the study, the method adopted must be carefully planned. The researcher should precisely define what he wants to measure? How does he want to measure? He should clearly define the population under study. It uses methods like quantitative analysis of secondary data, surveys, panels, observations, interviews, questionnaires, etc.

Descriptive Research concentrates on formulating the research objective, designing methods for the collection of data, selection of the sample, data collection, processing, and analysis, reporting the results.

Key Differences Between Exploratory and Descriptive Research

The difference between exploratory and descriptive research can be drawn clearly on the following grounds:

Research conducted for formulating a problem for more clear investigation is called exploratory research. Research that explore and explains an individual, group or a situation, is called descriptive research.
The exploratory research aims at the discovery of ideas and thoughts whereas the primary purpose of descriptive research is to describe the characteristics and functions.
The overall design of the exploratory research should be flexible enough so that it provides an opportunity to consider various aspects of the problem. On the contrary, in descriptive research, the overall design should be rigid which protects against bias and also maximise reliability.
The research process is unstructured in exploratory research. However, it is structured in the case of descriptive research.
Non-probability sampling i.e. judgment or purposive sampling design is used in exploratory research. As opposed to descriptive research where probability (random) sampling design is used.
When it comes to statistical design, exploratory research has no pre-planned design for analysis. Unlike, descriptive research that has the pre-planned design for analysis.

Therefore exploratory research results in insights or hypothesis, regardless of the method adopted, the most important thing is that it should remain flexible so that all the facets of the problem can be studied, as and when they arise. Conversely, descriptive research is a comparative design which is prepared according to the study and resources available. Such study minimises bias and maximises reliability.

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The normative background of empirical-ethical research: first steps towards a transparent and reasoned approach in the selection of an ethical theory

Sabine salloch.

Institute for Medical Ethics and History of Medicine, Ruhr University Bochum, NRW Junior Research Group “Medical Ethics at the End of Life: Norm and Empiricism”, Malakowturm – Markstr. 258a, D-44799 Bochum, Germany

Sebastian Wäscher

Jochen vollmann, jan schildmann.

Empirical-ethical research constitutes a relatively new field which integrates socio-empirical research and normative analysis. As direct inferences from descriptive data to normative conclusions are problematic, an ethical framework is needed to determine the relevance of the empirical data for normative argument. While issues of normative-empirical collaboration and questions of empirical methodology have been widely discussed in the literature, the normative methodology of empirical-ethical research has seldom been addressed. Based on our own research experience, we discuss one aspect of this normative methodology, namely the selection of an ethical theory serving as a background for empirical-ethical research.

Whereas criteria for a good ethical theory in philosophical ethics are usually related to inherent aspects, such as the theory’s clarity or coherence, additional points have to be considered in the field of empirical-ethical research. Three of these additional criteria will be discussed in the article: (a) the adequacy of the ethical theory for the issue at stake, (b) the theory’s suitability for the purposes and design of the empirical-ethical research project, and (c) the interrelation between the ethical theory selected and the theoretical backgrounds of the socio-empirical research. Using the example of our own study on the development of interventions which support clinical decision-making in oncology, we will show how the selection of an ethical theory as a normative background for empirical-ethical research can proceed. We will also discuss the limitations of the procedures chosen in our project.

The article stresses that a systematic and reasoned approach towards theory selection in empirical-ethical research should be given priority rather than an accidental or implicit way of choosing the normative framework for one’s own research. It furthermore shows that the overall design of an empirical-ethical study is a multi-faceted endeavor which has to balance between theoretical and pragmatic considerations.

Empirical-ethical research constitutes a relatively new field of enquiry which is characterized by the fact that socio-empirical research and ethical analysis are integrated for the treatment of concrete moral questions in modern medicine [ 1 ]. A broad variety of methodologies for empirical-ethical research has been suggested in recent years [ 2 - 4 ] and has been applied to concrete studies [ 5 - 7 ]. In this article, the argumentative structure upon which empirical-ethical research is based will be understood as “mixed judgments”, which contain both normative and descriptive or prognostic propositions ([ 8 , p. 9]). Regarding the methodology of empirical-ethical research, all the different aspects of this argumentative structure should be considered: the justification and origin of the normative premises, the development of the empirical premises and the integration of both into an ethical judgment. However, not all of these parts are currently addressed in the literature on empirical-ethical research to the same extent.

The question of normative-empirical interaction , i.e. the interplay between empirical data and normative elements, has been extensively investigated in recent years [ 9 - 11 ]. Methodological questions related to the empirical research which forms part of empirical-ethical studies have also been debated to a considerable extent [ 12 , 13 ]. By contrast, the normative methodology of empirical-ethical research remains rather underexposed so far. Therefore, this article focuses on the normative side of empirical-ethical research methodology and aims to shed light on one particular aspect: based on our experience, we will make a suggestion of how to proceed in the selection of a normative background for a concrete empirical-ethical study. Our own ETHICO project (“Empirical-Ethical Interventions in Oncology”), which forms a multistep empirical-ethical study for the development of interventions supporting clinical decision-making, made us aware of key aspects which are relevant for the selection of a normative background.

In the first section of this article, we discuss several meta-theoretical preconditions which underlie the idea of theory selection in ethics. We then address the consequences which emanate from the pluralism of ethical theories for philosophical ethics and for the applied ethics domain. Subsequently, we will present three criteria which we encountered as relevant in our own empirical-ethical study: the adequacy of the ethical theory for the issue at stake, the suitability of the theory for the purposes and design of the empirical-ethical research project and the interrelation between the ethical theory selected, and the theoretical backgrounds of the socio-empirical research. These criteria will be illustrated by reference to the ETHICO project and the limitations of our theory selection will be discussed. The article closes with a short summary of the main points developed.

Our main aim in this article is to provide, based on our own experience, a first suggestion of how to develop a strategy for utilizing normative-ethical theories in empirical-ethical research. However, the topic of theory selection in empirical-ethical research touches on a number of fundamental problems in ethical theory and the philosophy of science, such as whether the plurality of normative-ethical theories can be reduced to one overarching approach [ 14 ] or whether a rational selection between scientific theories is possible at all [ 15 , 16 ]. These and other challenges can only be dealt with superficially in this article. We do not aim to provide answers to these highly controversial issues, but to stimulate and enhance the current research practice of empirical-ethical studies.

Meta-theoretical considerations

The question of how to determine, justify and make the normative framework explicit for empirical-ethical research is a crucial one because direct inferences from descriptive data to normative conclusions are problematic for theoretical, methodological and pragmatic reasons [ 17 ]. Furthermore, depending on the normative background chosen, the impact of the empirical data for ethical judgment differs with regard to which type of data is needed and how it is processed within normative deliberation. There are different types of normative background which could be principally considered when conducting empirical-ethical research. Researchers can, for example, refer to a common morality or they can build on their private moral opinion. The potential of philosophical-ethical theory for concrete questions in medical ethics has been doubted for various reasons, such as a perceived lack of practical usefulness or problems arising from morally pluralistic societies [ 18 , 19 ]. However, the authors of this article appreciate the potential of philosophical-ethical theories to be utilized for empirical-ethical research. One reason for this position lies in the idea that philosophical-ethical theories (in contrast to theories which have a descriptive or explanatory character) do not primarily aim to fit the world as it is, but to guide human agency [ 20 ]. Due to this reverse “direction of fit” of philosophical-ethical theories compared to other types of theory, the question of the justification or well-foundedness of the theory is of particular importance in ethics. Ethical theories are usually based on elaborated accounts of normative justification. Building on such theories permits an external critical evaluation of the moral issues at stake. By contrast, only referring to the “lived morality” of stakeholders’ moral experiences and beliefs is fraught with the danger of perpetuating wrongful practices. In this respect, we see the benefit of utilizing philosophical-ethical theories for empirical-ethical research.

This article should generally be understood as a plea for a more transparent and reasoned approach in selecting an ethical-theoretical background for empirical-ethical research. Consequently, we will start from the assumption that there is a plurality of coexisting normative-ethical theories which could be applied to a concrete issue [ 21 ]. In contrast to philosophy of science, where skepticism towards a universal theory of justification has been widespread since the beginning of the 20 th century, the idea of a comprehensive theory is still vivid in ethical theory ([ 22 ], p. 312 f.). However, a generally accepted overarching ethical meta-theory, integrating all accounts without losing their specific perspectives, is not available. Following Julian Nida-Rümelin’s coherentist approach, the plurality of normative-ethical accounts mirrors the variety within our actual moral thinking ([ 22 ]; p. 314 f.). In our everyday moral judgments, we operate with a diversity of moral concepts and criteria, such as rights, duties and principles. Theory selection in empirical-ethical research, along these lines, can be understood as the question of what aspect of moral thinking should have priority in the current discussion. While different theoretical accounts could be applied similarly to a certain subject there are also reasons, why one theory might be a better fit than another. Our article tries to elucidate some of these reasons and to make a suggestion of how to proceed explicitly and deliberately in theory selection.

The issue of theory selection is not a matter of rational argument alone. In research practice, personal and biographical factors and pragmatic considerations of acceptance in the scientific community have a strong influence on researchers’ decisions regarding which ethical theory to choose. Reflection on the researchers’ own socio-cultural embeddedness is, thus, crucial for dealing with conflicts of interest and biases in bioethical research [ 23 ]. In the context of this article, we would like to stress the need to develop a critical stance towards one’s own ethical-theoretical commitments based on systematic criteria for theory selection. Along these lines, we will start by discussing the consequences which arise from the plurality of normative-ethical theories for philosophical ethics and applied ethics.

Dealing with the pluralism of ethical theories

In philosophical ethics, the plurality of normative theories does not usually lead to major practical problems. By contrast, within the ethical-theoretical sphere, the diversity of accounts about normative justification often serves as a reference point for fruitful discussions about ethical concepts and the general nature of morality. There is also an intensive reflection in philosophy about the interrelation between different types of theory, such as contractualist and consequentialist accounts. In general, a large number of current discussions in philosophical ethics are (next to meta-ethical topics) dedicated to issues of discussing, modifying and combining divergent accounts of normative justification.

This situation of (more or less) harmonic coexistence changes when we leave the theoretical realm and enter the field of applied ethics. The relationship between the emerging branch of empirical-ethical research and the more traditional idea of “applied ethics” is ambiguous. In this article, the term “applied ethics” is used in a rather broad sense, and is not restricted to one particular methodology or to so-called “top down” -approaches ([ 24 ], p. 321 ff.). Empirical-ethical research will, therefore, be regarded as one option to follow working in applied ethics. Applied ethics (including empirical-ethical research) is supposed to deal with concrete ethical problems. If normative solutions are provided, this often has far-reaching consequences for society and the future of individuals. Using different ethical theories as starting points can lead to divergent answers regarding concrete ethical problems [ 24 , 25 ]. A main difference can be observed between consequentialist theories and theories arguing on a deontological basis, for example, in referring to human dignity. These approaches often result in divergent normative evaluations, for example with regard to the question of how much protection must be given to early forms of human life. Hence, it often makes a great difference in the sphere of applied ethics whether a certain problem is treated on one ethical-theoretical background or the other. Or, as Konrad Ott puts it: “If you are unlucky, you will catch an adherent of Singer, Tooley or colleagues when you are a disabled infant, or as an asylum seeker, somebody who defends a mixture of ‘hard’ communitarianism and evolutionary ethics” ([ 26 ], p. 73; own translation).

The selection of an ethical theory underlying one’s own research is, thus, a crucial factor which influences the outcome of applied ethics, including empirical-ethical research. Unfortunately, the topic is rarely addressed in textbooks or introductory seminars on applied ethics. Philosophical-ethical theories are presented and discussed much more often without much explanation regarding their inherent relatedness or the ways of selecting one for the treatment of a concrete ethical issue [ 27 - 29 ]. It is also rather uncommon for authors writing in applied ethics to declare explicitly why they feel themselves committed to a specific ethical theory ([ 30 ], p. 62). In some instances, this may be an issue of the author’s individual preferences or a byproduct of their academic socialization. However, in light of the practical relevance of applied ethics work, the selection of a normative background is far from being of mere scholarly interest. Instead, it is closely linked to the researcher’s commitment to diligence and transparency and, thus, can be regarded as a core aspect of the ethics of carrying out ethics research.

Criteria for theory selection: theoretical considerations and their application in the ETHICO project

How, then, can the selection of a normative background proceed with regard to empirical-ethical research? In the following, three criteria for theory selection which we encountered as being relevant in our own project will be discussed. The ETHICO project aims at the development of interventions which support clinical decision-making on an empirical-ethical basis. It has a double-tracked structure encompassing qualitative empirical research as well as normative analysis. The interrelation between descriptive and normative aspects and theories applied is of central interest within the project. The ETHICO project has a model character and takes place in the oncology department of one German hospital [ 31 ]. It consists of six stages which range from the identification of ethical problems up to the development, implementation and evaluation of an intervention to support the clinical decision-making. The general structure of the project can be seen below:

The ETHICO project (“Empirical-ethical interventions in oncology”)

→ development of interventions to support clinical decision-making in oncology
→ empirical-ethical methodology

development of a framework for the empirical-ethical intervention project

qualitative research to identify ethical challenges in the context of an oncologic department

development of an empirically and normatively founded solution for the ethical problems identified

development of empirical-ethical interventions to support the decision making

implementation of the interventions (communication guidance for the ward team, leaflet with questions for the patients)

evaluation of the intervention and the overall study concept.

The requirements for the selection of a normative background in the ETHICO project differ from both philosophical ethics and “general” applied ethics. In philosophical ethics , normative theories are typically understood as systematic accounts regarding the question of what constitutes morally right or wrong actions, or – in an evaluative sense – good or bad human conduct ([ 32 ], p. 1). Criteria for the good quality of an ethical theory are mainly related to aspects which are inherent to the theory itself, such as clarity, coherence and simplicity ([ 33 ], p. 352 ff.). These criteria are not only valid for ethical theory, but are also well-known from the philosophy of science regarding other fields of scientific enquiry. A main focus in philosophical ethics, thus, lies on the well-foundedness and acceptability of a normative-ethical account, while only rarely other more practice-related requirements towards an ethical theory are discussed.

When we enter the field of applied ethics , additional criteria become relevant regarding the question of what constitutes a “good ethical theory.” Applied ethics, as a practice-related discipline, is supposed to deliver answers and support with regard to concrete and often urgent ethical issues, such as challenges arising from new technologies or societal developments. Applied ethics is, thus, expected to provide a normative orientation which is helpful in practice. To develop such an action-guiding potential, the normative theory applied, for example, needs to be compatible with the stakeholders’ actual moral thinking and behavior ([ 24 ], p. 325). Therefore, not only the theory’s acceptability (in the sense of its well-foundedness), but also its factual acceptance by the stakeholders has to be considered. Hence, ethical theories in applied ethics – more than in the “pure” philosophical realm – gain the character of “problem-serving tools”. This leads to additional, more pragmatic requirements becoming relevant compared to the use of the theories in the philosophical ethics field [ 34 ].

In the specific interdisciplinary field of empirical-ethical research , of which the ETHICO project forms part, even more facets must be considered for the selection of a normative background. Socio-empirical research in ethics serves a variety of different aims, ranging from the mere description of ethically relevant attitudes, through normative evaluations of the respective practices, to intervening in practice to modify people’s behavior [ 9 , 35 ]. Furthermore, empirical-ethical research forms a particularly intricate research field, as the demands of empirical research methodology have to be integrated with criteria for a good normative-ethical analysis [ 36 ]. In the following, we will discuss three relevant requirements which we encountered in our own empirical-ethical study. The aspects do not provide an exhaustive list of all relevant considerations; other aspects are also important, such as the researchers’ competence to deal with certain theoretical concepts or the acceptance of the theory’s results by the stakeholders involved. The three points discussed can, thus, be seen as main examples for what has to be considered when selecting the normative background for an empirical-ethical research project. All three aspects will firstly be first presented in a more abstract manner. Subsequently, the concrete outcome of theory selection in the ETHICO project will be briefly sketched.

The adequacy of the ethical theory for the issue at stake has to be considered in the selection of a theoretical background

An ethical theory which is selected to underlie an empirical-ethical research project has to fit the study’s thematic subject. Subject here means the practical problems and the empirical context to which the study is directed. This idea of a fit between an ethical theory and its subject needs further explanation: Most philosophical-ethical theories are – by their own self-understanding – not restricted to a specific field of practice, but are supposed to guide human action in general ([ 26 ], p. 73). However, normative concepts and principles contain descriptive elements [ 37 ] in referring to aspects of human life, such as happiness, preferences, moral experience, and much more. Hence, empirical characteristics form part of normative premises which are integrated into ethical judgment. It can, therefore, be argued that an ethical theory fits a certain subject if it is in line with salient features of the issue which is under discussion. Ethical theories can also fail in this respect, by not matching particular problems. Utilitarianism, for example, has its focus on particular aspects of the social reality (such as benefit and harm), but does not capture other aspects which are of equal importance to understand the moral phenomenon under discussion. A utilitarian account, therefore, might not adequately address ethical questions about caring relations at the end of life.

A second line of argument which is important for the fit between an ethical theory and the issue at stake is the more pragmatic consideration of an alignment between the ethical-theoretical background and the stakeholders’ actual moral deliberation and behavior, which form part of the moral phenomenon observed. If the ethical theory applied does not fit the stakeholders’ actual moral thinking, ethical interventions might not be successful ([ 24 ], p. 321). Therefore, the ethical theory selected also has to be in line with the lived normativity already embedded in practice.

It is also important to take into consideration that theories which, at first glance, do not seem to fit a certain subject very well, bear the potential of shedding a new and fresh light on the issue at stake, especially if they highlight aspects which might have been overlooked without that specific theoretical perspective. Using a virtue ethics framework for questions of distributive justice, for example, might not be the most obvious option, but helps to gather a new and broader understanding of the issue. The capability approach, for instance, rests on the idea of human thriving and, therefore, goes beyond “traditional” approaches to distributive justice which focus on personal utility, negative freedoms or comparisons of resource holdings [ 38 ].

Considering the relationship between an ethical theory and the specific research topic is relevant for applied ethics in general. However, it occurs in a specific form with respect to empirical-ethical research. Empirical-ethical research bears the characteristic that many features of the issue at stake are not well-known prior to the empirical research, because a better knowledge about the empirical characteristics is one of the expected outcomes. The fit of a theoretical background, therefore, often cannot be fully evaluated ex ante in empirical-ethical research. How then can the matching between the study’s subject and the ethical theory proceed in empirical-ethical studies? Different strategies could be principally applied here. A first option would be to determine the ethical-theoretical background before starting on the empirical research. As – depending on the theory chosen – different types of data are needed (e.g. a preference utilitarian needs different empirical data for the ethical analysis compared to a virtue theorist [ 17 ]), the choice of a specific theory has a strong influence on the selection and processing of empirically gathered data. This would lead to a preponderance of ethical theory which might contradict the methodological requirements and aims of social science research – especially in the case of qualitative social research. A second strategy would, thus, be to conduct the empirical research first and then designate an ethical theory for normative evaluation. However, going along this road would miss the potential of ethical theories for gaining a more comprehensive understanding of an empirical issue. Therefore, the third (and preferable) strategy is to stay rather undetermined in terms of ethical theory before the beginning of data gathering. If the field is then approached empirically, the researcher has the opportunity to select a theory which is best suited to capture the relevant features of the ethical problem. A constant interchange between the normative theory selected and the empirical data ensures that both sides are respected as playing an important role in the empirical-ethical research process ([ 4 ], p. 473 f.). The reflection has a cyclical character: the empirical phenomenon is understood against the background of the ethical theory and, on the other hand, helps to provide a deeper understanding of the semantic implications of the normative concepts and principles applied.

It was important for the ETHICO project that the normative background could be linked with the core features of oncologic practice, especially with empirical aspects of decision-making in advanced cancer. However, the researchers did not have full knowledge about the clinical practice in the department before conducting the empirical research. A spectrum of possibly suitable ethical theories was, therefore, prepared before the beginning of the empirical research based on a literature review which focused on normative theories which had been applied to similar issues previously. Our empirical study then consisted of a triangulation of qualitative methods (interviews, non-participant observation and focus groups). During our empirical research, we were aware of the spectrum of ethical theories which could be applied for a normative analysis and we correlated this with our (preliminary) empirical results. The final selection of a theoretical background was not made until the qualitative research had progressed to a stage which allowed us to gather a first understanding of the most important empirical characteristics of the social phenomenon observed. The ethical theory subsequently selected had an influence on the further qualitative data gathering, while, at the same time, the empirical data collected were used to specify and adjust the ethical theory with respect to the particular context. Hence, in a circular process, the selection of an ethical framework was considered during the empirical research, while, simultaneously, the theory selection was influenced by our preliminary empirical results.

As a result of preliminary data collection and analysis, we identified the issue of respect for the patient’s will as being important in the different settings of decision-making (tumor conference, ward round, outpatient clinic). This finding could be related to concepts of patient autonomy from the medical-ethical literature. It also became obvious that the way in which patient autonomy is exercised in practice is very much dependent on structures of decision-making [ 31 ]. We, therefore, decided to select an ethical theory which did not conceptualize autonomy in a liberalistic way but stressed the importance of institutional structures which promote patient autonomy [ 39 ].

The selection of a normative background has to account for the purposes and design of the empirical-ethical research project

Empirical research in medical ethics can contribute to normative arguments in a variety of ways. Examples are the identification of morally relevant problems, the provision of facts important for normative arguments, the description of the actual conduct of a group of stakeholders [ 9 ], the analysis of moral concepts, the construction of a normative standpoint, or the implementation of an intervention to enhance the moral quality of a practice ([ 30 ], p. 45 f.). Therefore, the purposes and design of concrete empirical-ethical studies can vary to a considerable extent. One ethical theory might be more adequate than others, depending on the exact aims of the empirical-ethical research project. The idea of the “application” of an ethical theory to a concrete issue should be understood as having a three-sided relationship: something is applied to something to some end ([ 26 ], p. 58 f.). “Application,” thus, always carries a teleological momentum, as it is inherently related to a purpose to which the application is supposed to serve. The selection of a normative background, therefore, should take into account the purposes of the concrete research project.

There are some approaches in the spectrum of philosophical-ethical theories which seem to be quite well-fitted to develop clear normative guidance. Other approaches are better suited to providing rich and comprehensive descriptions of moral phenomena. This latter type can be designated as “normatively weak” approaches [ 40 ]. This does not mean that these theories are less elaborate. Instead, they are not primarily directed towards normative evaluation, but serve better for other purposes. One example of such a “normatively weak” approach would be narrative ethics [ 41 , 42 ]. Narrative ethics uses the medium of stories to better understand phenomena such as sickness, dependency or disability, which are of great importance for medical ethics. Therefore, it serves different aims than ethical theories which have been developed to serve concrete practical (e.g. political) purposes and, consequently, carry a stronger action-guiding character. Classical utilitarianism, as presented by John Stuart Mill, for example, is based very much on the author’s political ideas and targets concrete suggestions for an improvement of practice. Utilitarianism is, thus, more than narrative ethics directed towards normative evaluation. While both types of theory can contribute principally to an improvement of practice, their different aims and character should be considered in the selection of a normative background. If an empirical-ethical research project is, for example, supposed to contribute to a clear-cut normative evaluation, it would be advisable to select an ethical theory which allows for concrete action-guiding suggestions. If the project aims more at a fuller understanding of a moral phenomenon, a “normatively weak” approach, such as narrative ethics, might be the better choice.

In the ETHICO project, we had to face the challenge that the ethical theory selected was supposed to serve a variety of aims during the different stages of the research (see section The ETHICO project (“Empirical-ethical interventions in oncology”) ). In the “deliberation” stage, for example, the ethical-theoretical framework was needed to guide the normative deliberation aiming at an ethically justified assessment of the moral problems which had been identified in the earlier project stages. Therefore, the ethical theory had to indicate what would be an appropriate solution to the moral deficits observed. Another example would be the “evaluation” stage, where a normative background was needed to determine whether the ethical quality of the practice had improved subsequent to the empirical-ethical intervention. The development of evaluation criteria is of great importance here. While there are some ethical theories (such as utilitarianism) which may even allow for a quantitative measurement, other theories (e.g. Kantian accounts) may not provide good opportunities for an empirical evaluation of the ethical quality of a practice.

The diverging aims of the different project stages finally led us to the conclusion that it would not be advisable to stick to one and the same ethical theory throughout the project. Instead, we drew on different normative backgrounds (partly in combination), depending on the purposes of each stage in the ETHICO project. During its first stages, which aimed at the identification and characterization of ethical problems, we stayed rather open and considered different theories which are suitable to deliver an empirically rich understanding of the moral phenomenon observed (such as narrative ethics or virtue ethics accounts). In stage three, “deliberation”, which aimed at the development of an ethically justified solution, we referred to O’Neill’s account on principled autonomy [ 39 ], which also had an influence on the intervention, which was then designed to establish trustworthy structures in the respective oncological department. In the final “evaluation” stage, we included, in addition to O’Neill’s account, Alan Gewirth’s theory, which considers basic structures of human agency [ 43 ]. We then tried to assess how far patients were enabled to exercise their right to self-determination in hospital,and whether they are hindered by factors, such as misinformation or a symptom burden, which do not allow them to exercise their autonomy.

The combination of diverse ethical theories and, thus, different approaches to ethical justification (e.g. virtues ethics and Kantian accounts) became necessary due to the comprehensive structure of the overall project, which is an empirical-ethical intervention study and, therefore, combines different aims. In addition, this approach mirrors our meta-theoretical view that the plurality of normative-ethical accounts corresponds to the variety within actual moral thinking. It was, therefore, necessary to draw on more than one ethical theory to deal adequately with the multifaceted phenomenon of decision-making in advanced cancer from a normative perspective.

The interrelation between the ethical theory selected and theoretical backgrounds of the socio-empirical research should be reflected

Empirical-ethical research includes socio-empirical inquiry as well as normative analysis. Hence, methodological requirements and theoretical backgrounds on “both sides” and their interrelationship should be taken into consideration throughout a project [ 36 ]. The choice of an ethical theory, therefore, has to consider the interrelation between the ethical theory selected and the theoretical backgrounds of the empirical research which forms part of the study. Empirical research methodologies carry certain normative assumptions which can be either in line or in tension with central ethical concepts. It has been stressed, for example, that quantitative surveys constitute society and subjects in a way in which the survey method can succeed [ 44 ]. This may contradict ethical notions, such as civic liberty or the person’s right to self-determination.

Besides this implicit normativity, socio-empirical research is laden with theoretical presuppositions about the social reality observed. Social theories make assumptions about what counts as a social phenomenon and which concepts should be regarded as core items in this context (e.g. agency, interaction or communication) ([ 45 ], p. 237). Such socio-theoretical presuppositions, which underlie empirical data gathering and analysis, and their relationship to the ethical theory selected should be respected when planning and conducting an empirical-ethical study [ 45 ]. There are some social theories which share the central premises of main philosophical-ethical theories, while others rest on assumptions which cannot be linked to ethics so easily. One “linking element” in the first respect would be the assumption that there are rational actors ([ 45 ], p. 239). This idea underlies, for instance, Grounded Theory methodology [ 46 ], which is based on the concept of interactiondeveloped by George Herbert Mead [ 47 ]. Regarding the idea of actors being the main concept, Grounded Theory stands in a “harmonic relationship” with most ethical theories which similarly focus on action ([ 45 ], p. 239). In other respects, a tension can be noticed when Grounded Theory is applied in the context of ethics. The understanding of reality, for example, as a social interaction with others and shared interpretative process is in contrast with those ethical theories which have a rather individualistic account of human agency.

The tension between ethics theory and social theory also becomes obvious when other socio-theoretical backgrounds are taken for empirical-ethical studies. One example in this respect would be systems theory, developed by Niklas Luhmann [ 48 , 49 ]. In systems theory, actors are not the main concept, therefore, it cannot be as easily aligned with ethical theory. We do not want to suggest that social theory and ethical theory should be congruent in all relevant features, however, researchers should be aware of whether the ethical theory they select harmonizes or stands in a strained relationship with the socio-theoretical presuppositions on which they draw. When this is not respected, there is a danger of missing ethically problematic issues if they are not in the focus of the social theory which underlies the empirical research.

We decided on a qualitative research methodology in the ETHICO project. We used an observational research method which is based on Symbolic Interactionism [ 50 ] in the “exploration” stage to investigate the clinical practice with regard to the question, which ethical problems are relevant and how can they be further characterized [ 31 ]. We tried to understand and reconstruct the meanings which certain objects and actions had for the research participants. An underlying presupposition of Symbolic Interactionism is the existence of intentional actors who stand in relationship with other actors and choose means to achieve their aims. This interaction is based on processes of mutual interpretation. The socio-theoretical model of intentional actors can be linked to many approaches from the spectrum of philosophical-ethical theories, which equally start from the assumption of purposeful human agency.

Therefore, the socio-theoretical framework selected gave us ample scope for the choice of an appropriate ethical theory in the ETHICO project. All ethical theories selected rest on the assumption of actors who make their choices on the basis of preferences and information. In addition, O’Neill’s non-individualistic account of autonomy stresses the importance of (social) structures and human interaction and can, therefore, serve as a linking element between the social-theoretical reconstruction and the ethical reflection on social practices in oncological decision-making.

Limitations

We generally tried to apply a transparent and reasoned approach regarding the choice of a normative background in the ETHICO project. However, the issue of theory selection appeared to be highly complex and led to a need for compromises, especially with regard to the tension between the theoretical well-foundedness of normative-ethical accounts and their applicability in practice. As displayed above, there are criteria inherent to an ethical theory which are important for judging its quality. If an ethical theory is insufficient with respect to clarity and coherence, it should not be applied in empirical-ethical research – even if it fits the designated subject very well, is in line with the overall aims of the project and matches the project’s socio-empirical research methodology very nicely. In addition to these three aspects which pertain to the appropriateness of a theory within a specific project, normative theories fulfil a critical function. When there is no theoretical justification apart from the suitability for the research, this external critical evaluation is not executed. A theoretical justification independent of the concrete context of application is crucial for empirical-ethical research to develop a critical stance towards the social practice observed. However, even the best-founded ethical theory cannot be successfully applied when any link between the theoretical notions and the empirical reality is missing. Researchers into the practice of empirical-ethical study should be aware of this ambivalence and the problems which arise from a preponderance of either the theory’s well-foundedness or its suitability within the concrete project.

A second important result emerging from our research is the need to apply diverging ethical theories within the different stages of the ETHICO project. This necessity mainly arises from the varying purposes we had during the research project: from the designation of an ethical problem up to the designing, implementation and evaluation of an intervention. While one ethical theory serves better for a deeper understanding of the relevant empirical phenomena, other normative backgrounds are better suited to measure the ethical quality of a social practice. This finding suggests that ethical theoriesin empirical-ethical research ethical theories cannot often be used in their “pure” form but have to be further modified to meet the requirements of the topic chosen and the aims of the respective research. A syncretic combination of different theories, which might be regarded as problematic from a philosophical perspective alone, can be justified in the context of an empirical-ethical research project. However, arbitrariness in theory selection should be avoided by explaining the reasons why certain approaches have been chosen, modified and combined for a concrete project.

In this paper, we aimed to stress that the specific set-up of empirical-ethical research necessitates a comprehensive reflection with regard to the selection of an ethical background theory. In contrast to traditional research in philosophical ethics, additional issues should be considered here which pertain to pragmatic aspects of conducting the research, as well as to more theoretical facets, such as the interrelation between the ethical-theoretical and the socio-theoretical background of the respective study.

It also became obvious that the requirements which are imposed on an ethical theory in the empirical-ethical field are rather high. Based on our practical experience in the ETHICO project, we have learned that there is probably no single ethical theory which fully accomplishes all the criteria relevant for theory selection. As a jack of all trades device consistent with all aspects discussed above will not be found in the spectrum of ethical theories, researchers should consider a modification or combination of different accounts. The overall design of an empirical-ethical study is a multi-faceted endeavor which has to balance between more theoretical and rather pragmatic considerations.

In summary, this paper aimed to show that a systematic and reasoned approach towards theory selection in empirical-ethical research should be given priority compared to an accidental or implicit way of choosing the normative framework for one’s own research (or to only referring to the researcher’s personal moral stances). The criteria discussed above may, therefore, serve as relevant points to consider when it comes to the matter of theory selection in the planning and conducting of an empirical-ethical research project.

Acknowledgements

This publication is a result of the work of the NRW Junior Research Group “Medical Ethics at the End of Life: Norm and Empiricism” at the Institute for Medical Ethics and History of Medicine, Ruhr University Bochum, which is funded by the Ministry for Innovation, Science and Research of the German state of North Rhine-Westphalia.

We acknowledge support by the German Research Foundation and the Open Access Publication Funds of the Ruhr-Universität Bochum.

Competing interests

The authors declare that they have no competing interests.

Authors’ contributions

SS, SW, JV and JS conducted the empirical study which forms the background for the arguments developed in this article. SS, SW and JS performed the empirical data collection. SW, JV and JS contributed to the development of the article’s main arguments. SS drafted the manuscript. JS and SW critically revised the manuscript. All authors have read and approved the final manuscript.

Contributor Information

Sabine Salloch, Email: [email protected] .

Sebastian Wäscher, Email: [email protected] .

Jochen Vollmann, Email: [email protected] .

Jan Schildmann, Email: [email protected] .

Descriptive Research vs. Exploratory Research

What's the difference.

Descriptive research and exploratory research are two different approaches used in the field of research. Descriptive research aims to provide a detailed and accurate description of a particular phenomenon or situation. It focuses on collecting and analyzing data to answer specific research questions and provide a comprehensive understanding of the subject. On the other hand, exploratory research is conducted when there is limited existing knowledge or understanding of a topic. It aims to explore and gain insights into a subject, often through qualitative methods such as interviews or focus groups. Exploratory research is more flexible and open-ended, allowing researchers to generate hypotheses and identify potential areas for further investigation. While descriptive research provides a detailed account of a phenomenon, exploratory research helps in generating new ideas and theories.

Attribute	Descriptive Research	Exploratory Research
Objective	Describes and analyzes existing phenomena or relationships	Explores new phenomena or relationships
Focus	Provides a detailed and comprehensive view of a specific topic	Seeks to gain initial insights and understanding of a broad topic
Data Collection	Primarily relies on structured methods and standardized instruments	Uses flexible methods such as interviews, observations, or focus groups
Sample Size	Usually larger sample sizes to ensure representativeness	Often smaller sample sizes due to the exploratory nature
Data Analysis	Emphasizes statistical analysis and summarization of data	Focuses on identifying patterns, themes, and emerging trends
Timeframe	Typically conducted over a longer period of time	Can be completed in a shorter timeframe
Hypothesis	Often tests specific hypotheses or research questions	Does not necessarily start with specific hypotheses

Further Detail

Introduction.

Research is a fundamental aspect of any scientific or academic endeavor. It allows us to gain knowledge, understand phenomena, and make informed decisions. Descriptive research and exploratory research are two common approaches used in various fields to investigate and analyze different aspects of a subject. While both methods aim to gather information, they differ in their objectives, methodologies, and applications. In this article, we will explore the attributes of descriptive research and exploratory research, highlighting their similarities and differences.

Descriptive Research

Descriptive research is a systematic investigation that aims to describe and document the characteristics, behaviors, or patterns of a specific population or phenomenon. It focuses on providing an accurate and detailed account of the subject under study. This type of research is often used to answer questions related to who, what, when, where, and how. Descriptive research relies on observation, surveys, interviews, and existing data to collect information.

One of the key attributes of descriptive research is its emphasis on objectivity and precision. Researchers strive to minimize bias and ensure that the collected data accurately represents the subject being studied. This is achieved through careful design, standardized data collection methods, and statistical analysis. Descriptive research is particularly useful when investigating large populations or when a comprehensive understanding of a phenomenon is required.

Another important aspect of descriptive research is its ability to provide a snapshot of a particular situation or group at a specific point in time. By collecting data from a representative sample, researchers can draw conclusions about the larger population. Descriptive research can also be used to identify trends, patterns, or relationships between variables. It serves as a foundation for further research and hypothesis testing.

Exploratory Research

Exploratory research, as the name suggests, is conducted to explore and gain insights into a subject or problem that is not well understood or lacks sufficient previous research. It aims to generate ideas, formulate hypotheses, and identify potential areas for further investigation. Exploratory research is often used when the topic is relatively new, complex, or lacks a clear theoretical framework.

Unlike descriptive research, which focuses on providing a detailed account, exploratory research is more flexible and open-ended. It allows researchers to gather preliminary information, explore different perspectives, and develop a deeper understanding of the subject. Exploratory research methods include literature reviews, focus groups, case studies, and pilot studies.

One of the key attributes of exploratory research is its qualitative nature. It often involves collecting and analyzing non-numerical data, such as interviews, observations, or textual analysis. This allows researchers to capture rich and nuanced information, uncover hidden patterns, and gain a holistic view of the subject. Exploratory research is particularly useful when investigating complex social phenomena, exploring new markets, or understanding human behavior.

Similarities

While descriptive research and exploratory research have distinct objectives and methodologies, they also share some similarities. Both approaches involve systematic data collection and analysis. They rely on empirical evidence to draw conclusions and make informed decisions. Additionally, both types of research contribute to the advancement of knowledge in their respective fields.

Furthermore, descriptive research and exploratory research can be used in combination. Exploratory research can help identify variables and generate hypotheses, which can then be tested using descriptive research methods. This iterative process allows researchers to refine their understanding and develop more comprehensive insights.

Differences

While there are similarities between descriptive research and exploratory research, there are also notable differences in their objectives, methodologies, and applications. Descriptive research aims to provide a detailed and accurate account of a subject, while exploratory research focuses on exploring and gaining insights into a relatively unknown or complex topic.

Descriptive research relies heavily on quantitative data collection methods, such as surveys or experiments, to gather information. It emphasizes objectivity, precision, and statistical analysis. In contrast, exploratory research often involves qualitative data collection methods, such as interviews or observations, to capture rich and contextual information. It allows for more flexibility and open-ended exploration.

Another difference lies in the scope and generalizability of the findings. Descriptive research aims to provide a representative snapshot of a larger population, allowing for generalizations and predictions. Exploratory research, on the other hand, focuses on generating insights and hypotheses that can be further tested and refined. Its findings are often more specific and context-dependent.

Descriptive research and exploratory research are two distinct approaches used in various fields to investigate and analyze different aspects of a subject. Descriptive research provides a detailed and accurate account of a specific population or phenomenon, while exploratory research aims to explore and gain insights into relatively unknown or complex topics. Both methods contribute to the advancement of knowledge and can be used in combination to refine understanding and develop comprehensive insights. Understanding the attributes of descriptive research and exploratory research is crucial for researchers to choose the most appropriate approach for their specific research objectives.

Comparisons may contain inaccurate information about people, places, or facts. Please report any issues.

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COMMENTS

Empirical vs. Descriptive
Descriptive articles are articles that describe a topic and sometimes have a literature review but do not include a research study.They may use other researcher's findings to create a new way of looking at an issue. Descriptive Articles: Use other researcher findings to create a new way of looking at an issue
Types of Research Designs Compared
You can also create a mixed methods research design that has elements of both. Descriptive research vs experimental research. Descriptive research gathers data without controlling any variables, while experimental research manipulates and controls variables to determine cause and effect.
What is Descriptive Research? Definition, Methods, Types and Examples
Descriptive research is a methodological approach that seeks to depict the characteristics of a phenomenon or subject under investigation. In scientific inquiry, it serves as a foundational tool for researchers aiming to observe, record, and analyze the intricate details of a particular topic. This method provides a rich and detailed account ...
Empirical Research: Definition, Methods, Types and Examples
Types and methodologies of empirical research. Empirical research can be conducted and analysed using qualitative or quantitative methods. Quantitative research: Quantitative research methods are used to gather information through numerical data. It is used to quantify opinions, behaviors or other defined variables.
Descriptive Research
Revised on June 22, 2023. Descriptive research aims to accurately and systematically describe a population, situation or phenomenon. It can answer what, where, when and how questions, but not why questions. A descriptive research design can use a wide variety of research methods to investigate one or more variables.
Empirical Research
Empirical research is based on phenomena that can be observed and measured. Empirical research derives knowledge from actual experience rather than from theory or belief. Key characteristics of empirical research include: Specific research questions to be answered; Definitions of the population, behavior, or phenomena being studied;
Difference Between Descriptive and Experimental Research
The main difference between descriptive and experimental research is that the descriptive research describes the characteristics of the study group or a certain occurrence while the experimental research manipulates the variables to arrive at conclusions.. Descriptive research and experimental research are two types of research people use when doing varied research studies.
Descriptive vs experimental research
Definition. Descriptive research is a method that describes a study or a topic. It defines the characteristics of the variable under research and answers the questions related to it. Whereas experimental research is a scientific approach to testing a theory or a hypothesis using experimental groups and control variables.
What is Descriptive Research?
At its core, descriptive research refers to a systematic approach used by researchers to collect, analyze, and present data about real-life phenomena to describe it in its natural context. It primarily aims to describe what exists, based on empirical observations.
Research Design
Quantitative research. Quantitative research is expressed in numbers and graphs. It is used to test or confirm theories and assumptions. This type of research can be used to establish generalizable facts about a topic. Common quantitative methods include experiments, observations recorded as numbers, and surveys with closed-ended questions.
PDF Comparing the Five Approaches
Case study research has experienced growing recognition during the past 30 years, evidenced by its more frequent application in published research and increased avail-ability of reference works (e.g., Thomas, 2015; Yin, 2014). Encouraging the use of case study research is an expressed goal of the editors of the recent . Encyclopedia of Case Study
What Is Empirical Research? Definition, Types & Samples in 2024
Empirical research is defined as any study whose conclusions are exclusively derived from concrete, verifiable evidence. The term empirical basically means that it is guided by scientific experimentation and/or evidence. Likewise, a study is empirical when it uses real-world evidence in investigating its assertions.
Understanding Findings
When reading empirical or descriptive journal articles, start by reviewing the abstract. This will give you a sense for what the article is about and if it will work for your research needs. While reading, watch for keywords. Next, read through the conclusion, which is usually at the end of the article. Then review the "Methods" section and ...
Descriptive research
Descriptive science is a category of science that involves descriptive research; that is, observing, recording, describing, and classifying phenomena.Descriptive research is sometimes contrasted with hypothesis-driven research, which is focused on testing a particular hypothesis by means of experimentation. [3]David A. Grimaldi and Michael S. Engel suggest that descriptive science in biology ...
Empirical research
A scientist gathering data for her research. Empirical research is research using empirical evidence.It is also a way of gaining knowledge by means of direct and indirect observation or experience. Empiricism values some research more than other kinds. Empirical evidence (the record of one's direct observations or experiences) can be analyzed quantitatively or qualitatively.
Descriptive vs. Analytical Research in Sociology: A Comparative Study
Descriptive research would enable them to establish the scale and scope of homelessness, identifying key demographics and patterns. Analytical research, however, would take these findings and probe deeper into the causes, examining the social, economic, and political factors that contribute to the situation and what can be done to alleviate it.
Difference between Descriptive Research and ...
Descriptive research is a method that focuses on detailing and explaining the characteristics of the subject being studied. It aims to answer questions about who, what, where, and when regarding the topic. ... Empirical Research aims to use statistical testing techniques to test the hypothesis and hence reduces the gap between theory and ...
Qualitative and descriptive research: Data type versus data analysis
Qualitative research collects data qualitatively, and the method of analysis is also primarily qualitative. This often involves an inductive exploration of the data to identify recurring themes, patterns, or concepts and then describing and interpreting those categories. Of course, in qualitative research, the data collected qualitatively can ...
Descriptive, Structural, and Experimental Empirical Methods in ...
This paper defines descriptive, structural, and experimental empirical work, provides examples, discusses their similarities and differences, and comments on their strengths and weaknesses. An important theme is that the marketing question and the data available should determine the methods used, and not the other way around.
A Practical Guide to Writing Quantitative and Qualitative Research
INTRODUCTION. Scientific research is usually initiated by posing evidenced-based research questions which are then explicitly restated as hypotheses.1,2 The hypotheses provide directions to guide the study, solutions, explanations, and expected results.3,4 Both research questions and hypotheses are essentially formulated based on conventional theories and real-world processes, which allow the ...
Difference Between Exploratory and Descriptive Research
Exploratory research is one which aims at providing insights into and an understanding of the problem faced by the researcher. Descriptive research, on the other hand, aims at describing something, mainly functions and characteristics. The research design is defined as a framework for carrying out research activities in different fields of study.
The normative background of empirical-ethical research: first steps
Background. Empirical-ethical research constitutes a relatively new field which integrates socio-empirical research and normative analysis. As direct inferences from descriptive data to normative conclusions are problematic, an ethical framework is needed to determine the relevance of the empirical data for normative argument.
Descriptive Research vs. Exploratory Research
Descriptive research aims to provide a representative snapshot of a larger population, allowing for generalizations and predictions. Exploratory research, on the other hand, focuses on generating insights and hypotheses that can be further tested and refined. Its findings are often more specific and context-dependent.
Factors Affecting Cultural Transmission in Museum Tourism: An Empirical
Although studies have focused on different factors affecting visitors' experiences, such as information and communication technologies (Kang et al., 2018; Nava & Cruz, 2022; Trunfio et al., 2019), brainwave technology (Qi et al., 2023), staff services and facilities (Harrison & Shaw, 2004), and the moderating role of visiting frequency (Kofi Preko & Gyepi-Garbrah, 2021), little research has ...

What is Descriptive Research? Definition, Methods, Types and Examples

What is descriptive research?

Importance of descriptive research

When to use descriptive research design?

Characteristics of descriptive research

Types of descriptive research

Descriptive research methods

Examples of descriptive research

Advantages of descriptive research

Disadvantages of descriptive research

Frequently asked questions

What is the difference between descriptive and exploratory research?

What is the difference between descriptive and experimental research?

Is descriptive research only for social sciences?

How important is descriptive research?

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Descriptive Research | Definition, Types, Methods & Examples

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Descriptive research question examples

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Shona McCombes

Empirical & Non-Empirical Research

Introduction: What is Empirical Research?

Quantitative Research

Qualitative Research

Difference Between Descriptive and Experimental Research

Key Areas Covered

What is Descriptive Research

What is Experimental Research?

Type of Studies

Data Collection

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What is Descriptive Research and How is it Used?

Introduction

Definition of descriptive research

The difference between descriptive and exploratory research

The evolution of descriptive research in academia

Benefits of obtaining a clear picture

Facilitating data interpretation

Enhancing the clarity of the research problem

Addressing practical problems

Building a foundation for future research

Specificity in the research question

Focus on the present situation

Standardized and structured methodology

Non-manipulative approach in observation

Replicability and consistency in results

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Conducting market research

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