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Major Perspectives in Modern Psychology

Verywell / Emily Roberts

• Psychodynamic Perspective
• Behavioral Perspective
• Cognitive Perspective
• Biological Perspective
• Cross-Cultural Perspective
• Evolutionary Perspective
• Humanistic Perspective

Psychological perspectives are different ways of thinking about and explaining human behavior. Psychologists utilize a variety of perspectives when studying how people think, feel, and behave.

Some researchers focus more on one specific school of thought, such as the biological perspective, while others take a more eclectic approach that incorporates multiple points of view.

No single perspective is "better" than another. Instead, each simply emphasizes different aspects of human behavior.

This article explores seven of the major perspectives in psychology, where these perspectives originated, and how they attempt to explain psychological issues. It also provides examples of key ideas from each psychological perspective.

Major Perspectives

The early years of psychology were dominated by a succession of these different schools of thought. If you have taken a psychology course, you might remember learning about structuralism, functionalism , psychoanalysis, behaviorism, and humanism—all of which are different schools of psychological thought.

As psychology has grown, the number and variety of topics psychologists investigate have also expanded. Since the early 1960s, the field of psychology has flourished. It continues to grow rapidly, as has the depth and breadth of subjects studied by psychologists.

Psychological Perspectives Today

Few psychologists identify their outlook according to a particular school of thought. While there are still some pure behaviorists or psychoanalysts, the majority of psychologists today categorize their work according to their specialty area and perspective.

Purpose of Psychological Perspectives

Why are there so many different perspectives in psychology? It is important to remember that every topic in psychology can be looked at in many ways. For example, let's consider the subject of aggression.

• A professional who emphasizes a biological perspective would look at how the brain and nervous system impact aggressive behavior.
• A professional who stresses a behavioral perspective would look at how environmental variables reinforce aggressive actions.
• A professional who utilizes a cross-cultural approach might consider how cultural and social influences contribute to aggressive or violent behavior.

Here are seven of the major perspectives in modern psychology .

1. The Psychodynamic Perspective

The psychodynamic perspective originated with the work of Sigmund Freud . This view of psychology and human behavior emphasizes the role of the unconscious mind , early childhood experiences, and interpersonal relationships to explain human behavior, as well as to treat mental illnesses.

Much thanks to Freud's work and influence, psychoanalysis became one of the earliest major forces within psychology. Freud conceived of the mind as being composed of three key elements: the id, the ego, and the superego .

• The id is the part of the psyche that includes all the primal and unconscious desires.
• The ego is the aspect of the psyche that must deal with the demands of the real world.
• The superego is the last part of the psyche to develop and is tasked with managing all of our internalized morals, standards, and ideals.

While the psychodynamic perspective is not as dominant today, it continues to be a useful psychotherapeutic tool.  

2. The Behavioral Perspective

Behavioral psychology focuses on learned behaviors. It was founded on the work of psychologists such as Edward Thorndike and John B. Watson.   Behaviorism dominated psychology in the early twentieth century but began to lose its hold during the 1950s.

Behaviorism differs from other perspectives because it focuses solely on observable behaviors rather than on emphasizing internal states.

Today, the behavioral perspective is still concerned with how behaviors are learned and reinforced. Behavioral principles are often applied in mental health settings, where therapists and counselors use these techniques to explain and treat a variety of illnesses.

3. The Cognitive Perspective

During the 1960s, a new perspective known as cognitive psychology emerged. This area of psychology focuses on mental processes like memory, thinking, problem-solving, language, and decision-making.  

Influenced by psychologists such as Jean Piaget and Albert Bandura , the cognitive perspective has grown tremendously in recent decades.

Cognitive psychologists often utilize an information-processing model (comparing the human mind to a computer) to conceptualize how information is acquired, processed, stored, and utilized.

4. The Biological Perspective

The study of physiology played a major role in the development of psychology as a separate science. Today, the perspective is known as biological psychology (also called biopsychology or physiological psychology). The point of view emphasizes the physical and biological bases of behavior.

Researchers with a biological perspective on psychology might look at how genetics influence behavior or how damage to specific areas of the brain affect personality.

The nervous system, genetics, the brain, the immune system, and the endocrine system are just a few subjects of interest to biological psychologists. Over the last few decades, the perspective has grown significantly with advances in our ability to explore and understand the human brain and nervous system.

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and positron emission tomography (PET) scans give researchers tools to observe the brain under a variety of conditions. Scientists can now look at the effects of brain damage, drugs, and disease in ways that were not possible in the past.

5. The Cross-Cultural Perspective

Cross-cultural psychology is a fairly new perspective that has grown significantly in the last twenty years. Psychologists and researchers in this school of thought look at human behavior across different cultures.

By looking at these differences, we can learn more about how culture influences our thinking and behavior.   For example, researchers have looked at how social behaviors differ in individualistic and collectivistic cultures .

• In individualistic cultures (such as the United States) people tend to exert less effort when they are part of a group—a phenomenon known as social loafing .
• In collectivistic cultures (such as China), people tend to work harder when they are part of a group.

6. The Evolutionary Perspective

Evolutionary psychology focuses on the study of how the theory of evolution can explain physiological processes.   Psychologists who take this perspective apply the basic principles of evolution (like natural selection) to psychological phenomena.

The evolutionary perspective suggests that these mental processes exist because they serve an evolutionary purpose—meaning that they aid in human survival and reproduction.​​​

7. The Humanistic Perspective

In the 1950s, a school of thought known as humanistic psychology arrived. It was greatly influenced by the work of prominent humanists such as Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow .

The humanistic perspective emphasizes the role of motivation in thought and behavior. Concepts such as self-actualization are essential. Psychologists with a humanist perspective focus on what drives humans to grow, change, and develop their personal potential.

Positive psychology (which focuses on helping people live happier, healthier lives) is a recent movement in psychology with roots in the humanist perspective.  

A Word From Verywell

There are many ways to think about human thought and behavior. The different perspectives in modern psychology give researchers and students tools to approach problems and answer questions. They also guide psychologists in finding new ways to explain and predict human behavior. This exploration and deeper understanding can even lead to the development of new treatment approaches.

Fonagy P. The effectiveness of psychodynamic psychotherapies: An update .  World Psychiatry . 2015;14(2):137–150. doi:10.1002/wps.20235

Malone JC. Did John B. Watson really "found" behaviorism? .  Behav Anal . 2014;37(1):1–12. doi:10.1007/s40614-014-0004-3

Glenberg AM, Witt JK, Metcalfe, J. From the revolution to embodiment: 25 years of cognitive psychology . Perspectives on Psychological Science . 2013;8(5):573-585. doi:10.1177/1745691613498098

American Psychological Association. Biological psychology . 

Lonner WJ. Half a century of cross-cultural psychology: a grateful coda . Am Psychol . 2015;70(8):804-14. doi: 10.1037/a0039454

Cosmides L, Tooby, J. Evolutionary psychology: a new perspective on cognition and motivation . Annu Rev Psychol . 2013;64:201-229. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.121208.131628

Waterman AS. The humanistic psychology-positive psychology divide: contrasts in philosophical foundations . Am Psychol . 2013;68(3):124-33. doi:10.1037/a0032168

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

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The Seven Perspectives of Psychology

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7 Psychological Perspectives (Importance And Points Of View)

Psychology is the study of human behaviors. It studies the conscious and unconscious circumstances including the feelings and thought of a person. It has 7 psychological perspectives that psychologists use to determine different aspects of human behavior. Each of these perspectives focuses on specific points of view and each one has its own purpose.

Major Perspectives On Modern Psychology

• Psychodynamic perspective. This perspective which started from Sigmund Freud’s work, views that human behavior emphasizes the role of early childhood experiences, the unconscious mind, and interpersonal relationships to treat mental illnesses and explain human behavior. Freud believes that the human is composed of three elements; id, ego, and superego. 1.1 Id- known as the persona’s main source of initial and unconscious desires. 1.2 Ego- this psyche aspect is the one that deals with the pressure of the real world. 1.3 Superego- this part of the human psyche is the last to develop and is responsible for our internal morals, standards, and ideals.

• Behavioral perspective. This perspective is focused on humans’ learned behavior. Its main concern is learning how behaviors were learned and reinforced in an individual. Behavioral perspective is usually used by therapists in treating a mental health condition to explain the cause of the illness.
• Cross-cultural perspective. This particular perspective examines human behavior throughout different cultures. There are 2 components that researchers study in order to determine how culture affects our thinking and behavior. The first one is the individualistic culture while the second one is the collectivistic culture.
• Biological perspective. This area of psychology previously known as biopsychology or physiological psychology highlights the physical and biological bases of human behavior.  Biological psychologists study how genetics or damaged areas in the brain can affect behavior and personality. Some of its subjects include not only the brain but also the nervous system, the immune system, and the endocrine system. It uses tools such as magnetic resonance imaging and positron emission tomography to observe the brain.
• Humanistic perspective. The psychologists on this perspective focus on what makes human wants to change, grow, and develop their personality. This area of psychology examines the responsibility of motivation on behavior and thought, making self-actualization an essential concept.
• Evolutionary perspective. Psychologists who use this approach study how human evolution has an impact on psychological phenomena. This study proposes that human mental processes exist because of the purpose that they serve on evolution, including how they can aid human survival and reproduction.

Interesting Facts About Psychology

This area of study is fascinating in its own way. Psychology has a wide scope of studies when it comes to understanding and examining human behavior and personality. This is important in order for us to understand and know why someone reacts or behaves in a different manner. According to various researches, psychology claims interesting facts that we are not even aware of. Here are some of the cool things that psychology suggests:

• Violence is not in our nature. We are naturally empathetic the moment we gain consciousness.
• Race is not a biological but a social construct.
• The human body has the ability to heal on its own.
• We can reconstruct our memories .
• Multi-tasking is not possible at all.

No matter what our interests are, psychology is definitely one for the books. If you wish to know more compelling facts about psychology, modern technology has new ways to feed us tons of information.

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7 Major Perspectives In Psychology (Uses & Examples)

Psychological perspectives are numerous theoretical positions that have been created in the discipline of psychology to explain various facets of human behavior. Each viewpoint has its own distinct ideas, concepts, and procedures and is similar to a different lens used to observe and understand the psychological world. They all seek to provide answers to fundamental issues about human nature, including the reasons behind our actions, how we process information, and the factors that shape our attitudes and thought patterns.

Purpose of Psychological Perspectives

Like many other academic disciplines, psychology has numerous facets and is quite complex. Psychologists have evolved a number of unique views to make sense of the broad array of events relating to human behavior, thinking processes, and emotions. Each provides a unique perspective from which we can analyze and comprehend thought and action.

Major Psychology Perspectives

We shall examine seven key psychological views in this section. Each viewpoint will be explained, and its applications and illustrations will be covered.

The Psychodynamic Perspective

The psychodynamic perspective , pioneered by Sigmund Freud , stresses the impact of the unconscious mind on behavior. This point of view contends that internal factors, many of which have roots in our early experiences, interact to determine our feelings, ideas, and behaviors.

• Unconscious mind : The part of the mind that contains thoughts, feelings, desires, and memories of which individuals are not aware.
• Id, ego, and superego : The three components of the psychic apparatus defined in Freud's structural model of the psyche.
• Repression : The psychological attempt made by an individual to direct one's own desires and impulses toward pleasurable instincts by excluding them from one's consciousness and holding or subduing them in the unconscious.

Importance: The psychodynamic perspective is essential because it places a strong emphasis on the unconscious mind and how it affects behavior, thoughts, and feelings. 

Uses & Examples: Free association and dream analysis are two methods used by psychodynamic therapists to unearth suppressed memories or thoughts. An individual with a phobia, for instance, would be urged to investigate unresolved problems from their past that may be the cause of the phobia.

The Behavioral Perspective

Psychologists like B.F. Skinner have defended the behavioral perspective. Focus is placed on discernible behaviors by Skinner and John Watson . It makes the case that interactions with the environment play a role in both teaching and reinforcing behavior.

• Reinforcement: The process of increasing the likelihood of a specific behavior by administering a reward.
• Punishment: An adverse event or outcome that decreases the behavior it follows.
• Classical Conditioning: A type of learning where a stimulus acquires the capacity to evoke a response that was originally evoked by another stimulus.

Importance: The behavioral approach is significant because it places a strong emphasis on visible behavior . According to this viewpoint, every behavior is acquired through interactions with the environment.

Uses & Examples: Environmental influences on the reinforcement of behavioral patterns may be studied by behavioral psychologists . This viewpoint can be used in classroom token economies and other behavior modification strategies like systematic desensitization for phobias.

The Cognitive Perspective

Memory, perception, attention, and problem-solving are just examples of the mental processes that are addressed by the cognitive perspective. According to cognitive psychologists, our thought processes affect how we behave.

• Schema: A cognitive framework or concept that helps organize and interpret information.
• Cognitive Dissonance: The mental discomfort experienced by a person who holds two or more contradictory beliefs, ideas, or values.
• Perception : The organization, identification, and interpretation of sensory information to represent and understand the environment.

Importance: Understanding mental functions like memory, thought, problem-solving, and language requires an understanding of cognition.

Uses & Examples: By assisting patients in identifying and altering unhelpful thought patterns, cognitive therapy is frequently used to treat illnesses including depression and anxiety . For instance, a person with anxiety may learn to resist unreasonable anxieties or thoughts about the future.

Humanistic Perspective

The humanistic perspective places a strong emphasis on self-actualization , personal development, and the search for identity . It makes the supposition that people have free will, are morally upright by nature, and want to realize their full potential.

• Self-Actualization: The realization or fulfillment of one's talents and potentialities.
• Congruence: When a person's ideal self (who they want to be) is congruent with their actual behavior.
• Empathy: The ability to understand and share the feelings of another.

Importance: The humanistic perspective is significant because it emphasizes the idea of free will while focusing on the individual's subjective experiences and personal development. It is predicated on the idea that everyone has inherent goodness and the capacity for personal development.

Uses & Examples: Client-centered therapy is one tool that humanistic psychologists may employ to assist people in discovering their true identities and potential. This viewpoint has shaped therapies that concentrate on a person's particular needs, including gestalt therapy or person-centered therapy.

The Biological Perspective

The biological perspective explores the role that biological processes play in human behavior. It examines how genetics, brain structures, hormones, and neurotransmitters influence behavior and thought processes.

• Neurotransmitters: Chemicals in the brain that transmit signals between nerve cells.
• Hormones: Chemical substances that control and regulate the activity of certain cells or organs.
• Genetics: The study of heredity and the variation of inherited characteristics.

Importance: The biological perspective is vital for its focus on the biological substrates of behavior. It explores how brain function, neurotransmitters, hormones, and genetics influence our actions, thoughts, and feelings. Its purpose is to highlight the physical and biological bases for behavior.

Uses & Examples: This perspective is applied in fields like neuropsychology and behavioral genetics. For instance, researchers might investigate how brain damage might affect personality or how certain genetic factors might increase the risk for mental illness.

The Socio-Cultural Perspective

The socio-cultural perspective considers how society and culture influence our behavior and thinking. It suggests that our thoughts and behaviors must be understood in the context of our social and cultural environment.

• Cultural Norms: Rules that a specific group uses for stating what is seen as appropriate and inappropriate behavior, values, beliefs, and attitudes.
• Social Roles : Expectations for how individuals should behave in a particular social status.
• Social Identity: The portion of an individual's self-concept derived from perceived membership in a relevant social group.

Importance: The socio-cultural perspective is important because it emphasizes the impact of social and cultural factors on human behavior. 

Uses & Examples: Socio-cultural psychologists might examine how cultural norms influence behavior or how social pressures impact mental health. For example, they might study how body image perceptions differ across cultures.

The Evolutionary Perspective

The evolutionary perspective applies principles of evolution, like natural selection , to explain psychological processes and phenomena. It suggests that many mental processes and behaviors have developed because they were helpful for survival and reproduction.

• Natural Selection: The process in nature by which organisms better adapted to their environment tend to survive and transmit their genetic characteristics to succeeding generations.
• Evolutionary Psychology : The study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection.
• Adaptation: A change or the process of change by which an organism or species becomes better suited to its environment.

Importance: The evolutionary perspective is important for its emphasis on how evolution shapes behaviors and mental processes. 

Uses & Examples : Evolutionary psychologists might examine behaviors from an adaptive perspective—such as why fear responses evolved or how mating preferences have changed over time.

What is the most popular psychology perspective?

It might vary depending on the particular topic of psychology being discussed, making it difficult to identify the "most popular" perspective in psychology. But in recent years, the cognitive approach has become increasingly significant, especially in fields like cognitive behavioral treatment (CBT) and the comprehension of mental diseases.

What is a perspective in psychology by Sigmund Freud?

The majority of individuals link Sigmund Freud with the psychodynamic school of thought in psychology. This viewpoint places special emphasis on how early experiences, the unconscious mind, and the interaction of the id, ego, and superego all have an impact on behavior and thought processes.

Carlson, N. R. (2010). Psychology: the science of behaviour. Pearson Education Canada.

Fancher, R. E., & Rutherford, A. (2016). Pioneers of psychology. WW Norton & Company.

Freud, S. (1920). Beyond the pleasure principle . SE, 18: 1-64.

Gould, J. D., & Lewis, C. (1985). Designing for usability: key principles and what designers think. Communications of the ACM, 28(3), 300-311.

Maslow, A. H. (1943). A theory of human motivation. Psychological review, 50(4), 370.

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Understanding the 7 Perspectives of Psychology

Have you ever wondered why people behave the way they do? Or how our minds work to process information and emotions? These are just a few of the questions that psychology seeks to answer.

In this article, we will explore the 7 perspectives of psychology, including the biological, behavioral, cognitive, humanistic, psychodynamic, evolutionary, and sociocultural perspectives. We will also delve into how each perspective differs from the others, and how they can be applied in real-life situations to better understand behavior, improve relationships, and enhance personal growth.

So, if you’re curious about the inner workings of the human mind, keep reading to learn more about the fascinating world of psychology.

• 1 Key Takeaways:
• 2 What is Psychology?
• 3.1 Biological Perspective
• 3.2 Behavioral Perspective
• 3.3 Cognitive Perspective
• 3.4 Humanistic Perspective
• 3.5 Psychodynamic Perspective
• 3.6 Evolutionary Perspective
• 3.7 Sociocultural Perspective
• 4.1 Focus of Study
• 4.2 Key Theories and Concepts
• 4.3 Treatment Approaches
• 5.1 Understanding Behavior and Mental Processes
• 5.2 Improving Relationships and Communication
• 5.3 Enhancing Personal Growth and Development
• 6.1 What are the 7 Perspectives of Psychology?
• 6.2 How do the 7 Perspectives of Psychology differ?
• 6.3 In what ways do the 7 Perspectives of Psychology overlap?
• 6.4 Can one perspective fully explain human behavior?
• 6.5 Why is it important to understand the 7 Perspectives of Psychology?
• 6.6 How have the 7 Perspectives of Psychology evolved over time?

Key Takeaways:

• Understanding the 7 perspectives of psychology provides insight into the complexities of human behavior and mental processes.
• Each perspective offers a unique lens through which to view and understand human experience.
• These perspectives can be applied in real life to improve relationships, communication, and personal growth and development.

What is Psychology?

Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes, encompassing a wide range of topics such as cognition , emotion , perception, personality , and mental health .

Psychology delves into understanding how individuals think, feel, and act. It explores the intricate cognitive processes that shape our behavior, decision-making, and problem-solving.

Additionally, psychology sheds light on the complexities of emotional well-being . It addresses factors that influence emotions, stress, and coping mechanisms.

Furthermore, psychology plays a crucial role in identifying and treating a myriad of psychological disorders that impact millions worldwide. It offers insights into conditions such as depression, anxiety, and schizophrenia.

What are the 7 Perspectives of Psychology?

The field of psychology encompasses seven major perspectives that provide distinct frameworks for understanding human behavior and mental processes: behaviorism , cognitive , biological , humanistic , psychodynamic , evolutionary , and sociocultural perspectives.

Each perspective offers unique insights into the complex workings of the human mind and behavior.

Behaviorism focuses on observable behaviors and the environmental factors that influence them, emphasizing the role of reinforcement and conditioning in shaping actions.

The cognitive perspective delves into the intricate processes of thought, memory, and problem-solving, shedding light on how individuals perceive, process, and store information.

Meanwhile, the biological perspective explores the interplay between biological factors, such as genetics and brain structure, and their impact on behavior and mental health.

In contrast, the humanistic perspective underscores the significance of personal growth, self-actualization, and subjective experiences, championing individual agency and potential.

The psychodynamic perspective delves into unconscious drives, conflicts, and early childhood experiences, offering profound insights into the influence of the unconscious mind on behavior and emotions.

The evolutionary perspective examines how natural selection has shaped cognitive processes and behaviors over time, illuminating the adaptive advantages of certain psychological mechanisms.

The sociocultural perspective delves into the cultural, social, and environmental factors that mold behavior and shape psychological phenomena, emphasizing the profound impact of social norms, customs, and societal values.

Biological Perspective

The biological perspective in psychology examines behavior and mental processes through the lens of biological factors, including genetics , neurotransmitters, brain structure, and their influence on human behavior and mental health.

Genetic influences play a crucial role in shaping an individual’s predisposition towards certain behaviors and mental health disorders. It involves studying the heritability of traits, the impact of gene-environment interactions, and the role of genetic variations in susceptibility to specific conditions.

Neurobiological mechanisms, on the other hand, delve into the intricate workings of the brain and nervous system. This includes analyzing the functions of neurotransmitters, neural pathways, and brain regions in modulating behavior, emotions, and cognition.

Understanding these biological determinants has significant implications for identifying the etiology of various mental health disorders and shaping effective therapeutic interventions. It informs the development of psychopharmacological treatments, targeted neurological interventions, and personalized healthcare approaches.

Behavioral Perspective

The behavioral perspective , rooted in behaviorism, explores human behavior as a product of learned associations, environmental influences, and the impact of reinforcement and punishment on behavioral patterns.

Behaviorism, as a fundamental approach within psychology, focuses on observable behaviors rather than internal mental processes. It shapes its understanding of human behavior as primarily shaped by the environment and external stimuli.

This perspective emphasizes the role of conditioning processes in shaping individual responses to stimuli. It also places a strong emphasis on the principles of reinforcement and punishment in modifying and maintaining behavior patterns .

By studying the relationship between stimuli and responses , behaviorists strive to understand how humans learn and develop certain behaviors. This paves the way for the application of behaviorist principles in behavior modification techniques and interventions to bring about desired changes in individuals’ behaviors.

Cognitive Perspective

The cognitive perspective in psychology focuses on internal mental processes, such as perception, memory, problem-solving, and decision-making, and their role in shaping human behavior and experiences.

Psychology is the study of how people acquire, process, and store information. It aims to understand the complexities of the human mind and its functioning.

One aspect of psychology is investigating how mental representations, schemas, and problem-solving strategies impact learning, reasoning, and adaptive behaviors.

Humanistic Perspective

The humanistic perspective in psychology emphasizes the inherent dignity, potential for growth, and subjective experiences of individuals, aiming to understand human behavior and mental health from a holistic and person-centered approach.

Humanistic psychology focuses on the whole person and recognizes their unique experiences. It aims to uncover the depth of human potential, self-actualization, and promote mental well-being. This approach emphasizes personal agency, autonomy, and the ability to make positive choices that enhance one’s life and relationships.

In essence, humanistic psychology views individuals as active agents in their own development. It supports growth and transformation in various psychosocial rehabilitation settings.

Psychodynamic Perspective

The psychodynamic perspective , pioneered by Sigmund Freud, explores the influence of unconscious drives, conflicts, and early childhood experiences on behavior, personality development, and psychological disorders.

Freudian concepts such as the id, ego, and superego are central to the psychodynamic perspective, emphasizing the dynamic interplay between conscious and unconscious mental processes.

Psychoanalysis, as a therapeutic intervention derived from psychodynamic theories, aims to bring unconscious conflicts and repressed memories to the surface, fostering self-understanding and emotional healing.

Within psychology, the psychodynamic perspective continues to evolve, with contemporary therapists integrating interpersonal, relational, and object relations theories to enhance the effectiveness of psychodynamic therapeutic approaches.

Evolutionary Perspective

The evolutionary perspective in psychology investigates the adaptive functions of human behavior and psychological traits, drawing insights from evolutionary biology to understand the origins and survival value of human traits and behaviors.

This perspective applies Darwin’s theory of natural selection to explain how certain behaviors or psychological mechanisms have evolved to enhance survival and reproduction.

By examining evolutionary psychology principles, psychologists explore how traits such as altruism, aggression, and mate selection have provided advantages for ancestral populations and have been passed down through generations.

The implications of evolutionary theory on human behavior and decision-making shed light on why individuals may display certain preferences or biases that have aided in their ancestors’ survival.

Sociocultural Perspective

The sociocultural perspective in psychology examines the influence of cultural norms , societal factors, and social contexts on human behavior, cognition, and mental health, emphasizing the interplay between culture and individual experiences.

The study focuses on the influence of cultural diversity on psychological processes and emphasizes the importance of using multicultural therapy approaches to meet the needs of individuals from diverse cultural backgrounds. Cross-cultural psychology, a key aspect of this perspective, examines how various cultures shape cognitive processes, attitudes, and behaviors. It also reveals how individuals from different cultural backgrounds perceive and react to societal norms and expectations.

How do these Perspectives Differ from Each Other?

Each of the seven major perspectives in psychology offers unique frameworks and theoretical foundations, differing in their approaches to understanding human behavior, mental processes, and the application of psychological principles.

For instance, the behavioral perspective focuses on observable behavior and the influence of the environment, often employing experimentation and behavior analysis.

On the other hand, the cognitive perspective delves into internal mental processes such as thinking, memory, and problem-solving, using methods like introspection and cognitive experiments to understand these processes.

The biological perspective emphasizes the role of genetics, neurochemistry, and the nervous system in shaping behavior and cognition, often employing techniques such as brain imaging and genetic studies.

In contrast, the humanistic perspective emphasizes the unique qualities of each individual, focusing on personal growth and self-actualization through methods like client-centered therapy and positive psychology interventions.

Focus of Study

The major perspectives of psychology differ in their primary focus of study, encompassing diverse areas such as biological determinants , environmental influences , cognitive processes, cultural contexts , and unconscious motivations .

Biological perspective centers on understanding behavior and mental processes through the lens of genetics, neurobiology, and the physiological aspects of the brain and body. It scrutinizes the impact of genetic predispositions, brain structures, and neurotransmitter functions on individual differences and psychological phenomena.

Environmental perspective highlights the role of external stimuli and experiences in shaping behavior and cognition, emphasizing the impact of family dynamics, social interactions, cultural norms, and societal influences on individuals’ development and mental well-being.

Cognitive perspective delves into mental processes such as perception, thinking, memory, and problem-solving, exploring how individuals acquire, organize, and use information to navigate their environment and understand the world around them.

Cultural perspective examines the influence of cultural values, traditions, and norms on psychological phenomena, recognizing the significance of cultural diversity and its impact on human behavior, emotions, and cognitive processes.

Psychodynamic perspective focuses on the unconscious determinants of behavior, emphasizing the role of early childhood experiences, repressed emotions, and inner conflicts in shaping individuals’ personalities, motivations, and psychological disorders.

Key Theories and Concepts

The major perspectives of psychology are underpinned by distinct theories and conceptual frameworks, reflecting their unique approaches to explaining human behavior, cognitive processes, and mental health phenomena.

For instance, the psychodynamic perspective emphasizes the role of unconscious forces, childhood experiences, and internal conflicts in shaping behavior. This perspective draws from Freud’s psychoanalytic theory as its foundational principle.

On the other hand, the behavioral perspective focuses on observable behaviors and seeks to understand them through the principles of conditioning and reinforcement. These concepts are central to the behavioral framework.

Treatment Approaches

The major perspectives of psychology inform diverse treatment approaches and therapeutic interventions, ranging from biological interventions to behavioral modification techniques and psychodynamic therapies, reflecting the multifaceted nature of psychological treatment.

Each major perspective brings a unique set of therapeutic interventions and clinical applications.

For instance, the biological perspective focuses on the influence of genetics and neurochemistry on psychological disorders, leading to treatments such as medication and electroconvulsive therapy.

Conversely, behavioral interventions emphasize the role of conditioning and learning in shaping behaviors, employing techniques like reinforcement and exposure therapy.

Similarly, the psychodynamic perspective delves into unconscious conflicts and early experiences, employing methods such as free association and dream analysis.

Understanding these perspectives is vital for tailoring effective psychological treatments to individuals’ specific needs.

How Can These Perspectives be Applied in Real Life?

The various perspectives in psychology offer practical applications for understanding human behavior, improving communication, and promoting personal growth and development in real-life contexts.

For example, the behavioral perspective can help individuals modify their behaviors by understanding how they are learned and reinforced. This can be applied in everyday life to break bad habits or establish positive routines.

On the other hand, the cognitive perspective can aid in understanding how people perceive, think, and solve problems, which is crucial for effective communication and conflict resolution in relationships.

Understanding Behavior and Mental Processes

The perspectives of psychology provide valuable insights for understanding the complexities of human behavior, cognitive processes, emotional experiences, and the underlying mechanisms that shape individual and collective actions.

By examining behavior through the lenses of different psychological perspectives, one can gain a deeper understanding of the multifaceted nature of human interactions, reactions, and decision-making processes.

Cognitive psychology delves into the intricate workings of the mind, exploring how individuals process information, make decisions, and solve problems. Social psychology elucidates the impact of social influences on human behavior, shedding light on phenomena like conformity, obedience, and group dynamics.

Understanding emotional experiences through the psychodynamic perspective allows insights into the subconscious motivations that drive behaviors. These diverse viewpoints collectively enrich the comprehension of human behavior and mental processes.

Improving Relationships and Communication

The perspectives of psychology offer valuable insights for enhancing interpersonal relationships, improving communication skills, and fostering empathy and understanding in social interactions and personal connections.

By understanding the cognitive and emotional aspects within relationships, individuals can apply principles of psychology to navigate challenges, resolve conflicts, and build mutual respect.

Whether through the lens of behavioral, humanistic, or psychodynamic theories, psychology equips individuals with tools to recognize non-verbal cues, empathize with diverse perspectives, and adapt communication styles to create meaningful connections.

Incorporating social psychology frameworks into relationship dynamics can help individuals comprehend group dynamics, social influence, and the impact of cultural factors on interpersonal interactions.

Applying these insights can enhance emotional intelligence, promote inclusivity, and foster harmonious relationships built on understanding and compassion.

Enhancing Personal Growth and Development

The perspectives of psychology contribute to personal growth and development by offering frameworks for self-exploration, goal setting, resilience-building, and the cultivation of positive psychological attributes that foster holistic well-being.

Through the lens of cognitive psychology, individuals can better understand how their thoughts influence emotions and behaviors, allowing them to challenge negative thinking patterns and develop more adaptive cognitive processes.

Incorporating principles from humanistic psychology encourages individuals to embrace their unique qualities, recognize their intrinsic worth, and strive for personal growth in alignment with their authentic selves.

Applying social psychology concepts aids in understanding how social interactions, support networks, and connections contribute to one’s sense of belonging and psychological resilience.

By integrating these diverse perspectives of psychology, individuals can cultivate a growth-oriented mindset, enhance their emotional intelligence, and foster the development of positive attributes, such as empathy, optimism, and gratitude.

Frequently Asked Questions

The 7 Perspectives of Psychology are the different lenses or approaches used to understand and explain human behavior and mental processes. They include the biological, behavioral, cognitive, psychodynamic, humanistic, evolutionary, and sociocultural perspectives.

How do the 7 Perspectives of Psychology differ?

Each perspective focuses on a specific aspect of human behavior and uses unique theories, methods, and principles to explain it. They also vary in their emphasis on nature vs. nurture, individual vs. environment, and conscious vs. unconscious influences.

In what ways do the 7 Perspectives of Psychology overlap?

While the perspectives offer distinct viewpoints, they are not mutually exclusive. Many psychologists use a combination of perspectives to gain a comprehensive understanding of human behavior. For example, the biological and cognitive perspectives work together to study the brain-behavior relationship.

Can one perspective fully explain human behavior?

No, each perspective has its limitations and cannot fully explain the complexity of human behavior. To truly understand human behavior, it is necessary to consider multiple perspectives and their interactions.

Why is it important to understand the 7 Perspectives of Psychology?

Understanding the 7 Perspectives of Psychology allows for a more holistic and comprehensive understanding of human behavior. It also helps psychologists to approach research and treatment from different angles, leading to more effective interventions.

How have the 7 Perspectives of Psychology evolved over time?

The 7 Perspectives of Psychology have evolved and developed over the years as new research and theories emerge. For example, the humanistic and evolutionary perspectives are relatively new compared to the more established biological and psychodynamic perspectives.

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1. Introduction to Psychology

Psychological perspectives.

Psychologists today do not believe there is one “right” way to study the way people think or behave. There are, however, various schools of thought that evolved throughout the development of psychology that continue to shape the way psychologists investigate human behavior. For example, some psychologists might attribute a certain behavior to biological factors such as genetics while another psychologist might consider early childhood experiences to be a more likely explanation for the behavior. Because psychologists might emphasize various points within psychology in their research and analysis of behavior, there are different viewpoints in psychology. These schools of thought are known as approaches, or perspectives.

The Psychodynamic Perspective

Psychodynamic theory is an approach to psychology that studies the psychological forces underlying human behavior, feelings, and emotions, and how they may relate to early childhood experience. This theory is especially interested in the dynamic relations between conscious and unconscious motivation, and asserts that behavior is the product of underlying conflicts over which people often have little awareness.

Psychodynamic theory was born in 1874 with the works of German scientist Ernst von Brucke, who supposed that all living organisms are energy systems governed by the principle of the conservation of energy. During the same year, medical student Sigmund Freud adopted this new “dynamic” physiology and expanded it to create the original concept of “psychodynamics,” in which he suggested that psychological processes are flows of psychosexual energy (libido) in a complex brain. Freud also coined the term “psychoanalysis.” Later, these theories were developed further by Carl Jung, Alfred Adler, Melanie Klein, and others. By the mid-1940s and into the 1950s, the general application of the “psychodynamic theory” had been well established.

Sigmund Freud Sigmund Freud developed the field of psychoanalytic psychology and the psychosexual theory of human development.

The Role of the Unconscious

Freud’s theory of psychoanalysis holds two major assumptions: (1) that much of mental life is unconscious (i.e., outside of awareness), and (2) that past experiences, especially in early childhood, shape how a person feels and behaves throughout life. The concept of the unconscious was central: Freud postulated a cycle in which ideas are repressed but continue to operate unconsciously in the mind, and then reappear in consciousness under certain circumstances. Much of Freud’s theory was based on his investigations of patients suffering from “hysteria” and neurosis. Hysteria was an ancient diagnosis that was primarily used for women with a wide variety of symptoms, including physical symptoms and emotional disturbances with no apparent physical cause. The history of the term can be traced to ancient Greece, where the idea emerged that a woman’s uterus could float around her body and cause a variety of disturbances. Freud theorized instead that many of his patients’ problems arose from the unconscious mind. In Freud’s view, the unconscious mind was a repository of feelings and urges of which we have no awareness.

The treatment of a patient referred to as Anna O. is regarded as marking the beginning of psychoanalysis. Freud worked together with Austrian physician Josef Breuer to treat Anna O.’s “hysteria,” which Freud implied was a result of the resentment she felt over her father’s real and physical illness that later led to his death. Today many researchers believe that her illness was not psychological, as Freud suggested, but either neurological or organic.

The Id, Ego, and Superego

Freud’s structural model of personality divides the personality into three parts—the id, the ego, and the superego. The id is the unconscious part that is the cauldron of raw drives, such as for sex or aggression. The ego, which has conscious and unconscious elements, is the rational and reasonable part of personality. Its role is to maintain contact with the outside world to keep the individual in touch with society, and to do this it mediates between the conflicting tendencies of the id and the superego. The superego is a person’s conscience, which develops early in life and is learned from parents, teachers, and others. Like the ego, the superego has conscious and unconscious elements. When all three parts of the personality are in dynamic equilibrium, the individual is thought to be mentally healthy. However, if the ego is unable to mediate between the id and the superego, an imbalance is believed to occur in the form of psychological distress.

Freud’s theory of the unconscious Freud believed that we are only aware of a small amount of our mind’s activity, and that most of it remains hidden from us in our unconscious. The information in our unconscious affects our behavior, although we are unaware of it.

Psychosexual Theory of Development

Freud’s theories also placed a great deal of emphasis on sexual development. Freud believed that each of us must pass through a series of stages during childhood, and that if we lack proper nurturing during a particular stage, we may become stuck or fixated in that stage. Freud’s psychosexual model of development includes five stages: oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital. According to Freud, children’s pleasure-seeking urges are focused on a different area of the body, called an erogenous zone, at each of these five stages. Psychologists today dispute that Freud’s psychosexual stages provide a legitimate explanation for how personality develops, but what we can take away from Freud’s theory is that personality is shaped, in some part, by experiences we have in childhood.

Jungian Psychodynamics

Carl Jung was a Swiss psychotherapist who expanded upon Freud’s theories at the turn of the 20th century. A central concept of Jung’s analytical psychology is individuation: the psychological process of integrating opposites, including the conscious with the unconscious, while still maintaining their relative autonomy. Jung focused less on infantile development and conflict between the id and superego and instead focused more on integration between different parts of the person. Jung created some of the best-known psychological concepts, including the archetype, the collective unconscious, the complex, and synchronicity.

Psychodynamics Today

At present, psychodynamics is an evolving multidisciplinary field that analyzes and studies human thought processes, response patterns, and influences. Research in this field focuses on areas such as:

• understanding and anticipating the range of conscious and unconscious responses to specific sensory inputs, such as images, colors, textures, sounds, etc.;
• utilizing the communicative nature of movement and primal physiological gestures to affect and study specific mind-body states; and
• examining the capacity of the mind and senses to directly affect physiological response and biological change.

Psychodynamic therapy, in which patients become increasingly aware of dynamic conflicts and tensions that are manifesting as a symptom or challenge in their lives, is an approach to therapy that is still commonly used today.

Behavioral Perspective

Behaviorism is an approach to psychology that emerged in the early 20th century as a reaction to the psychoanalytic theory of the time. Psychoanalytic theory often had difficulty making predictions that could be tested using rigorous experimental methods. The behaviorist school of thought maintains that behaviors can be described scientifically without recourse either to internal physiological events or to hypothetical constructs such as thoughts and beliefs. Rather than focusing on underlying conflicts, behaviorism focuses on observable, overt behaviors that are learned from the environment.

Its application to the treatment of mental problems is known as behavior modification. Learning is seen as behavior change molded by experience; it is accomplished largely through either classical or operant conditioning (described below).

The primary developments in behaviorism came from the work of Ivan Pavlov, John B. Watson, Edward Lee Thorndike, and B. F. Skinner.

Ivan Pavlov and Classical Conditioning

The Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov was widely known for describing the phenomenon now known as classical conditioning .  In his famous 1890s experiment, he trained his dogs to salivate on command by associating the ringing of a bell with the delivery of food. As Pavlov’s work became known in the West, particularly through the writings of John B. Watson, the idea of conditioning as an automatic form of learning became a key concept in the development of behaviorism.

Ivan Pavlov Ivan Pavlov is best known for his classical conditioning experiments with dogs.

Watson’s “Little Albert” Experiment

John B. Watson was an American psychologist who is best known for his controversial “Little Albert” experiment. In this experiment, he used classical conditioning to teach a nine-month-old boy to be afraid of a white toy rat by associating the rat with a sudden loud noise. This study demonstrated how emotions could become conditioned responses.

Watson’s “Little Albert” experiment In Watson’s famous experiment, he taught an infant to be afraid of a fur coat, among other things, through the process of conditioning.

Thorndike’s Law of Effect

Edward Lee Thorndike was an American psychologist whose work on animal behavior and the learning process led to the “law of effect.” The law of effect states that responses that create a satisfying effect are more likely to occur again, while responses that produce a discomforting effect become less likely to occur.

Skinner’s Operant Conditioning

“Operant conditioning,” a term coined by psychologist B. F. Skinner, describes a form of learning in which a voluntary response is strengthened or weakened depending on its association with either positive or negative consequences. The strengthening of a response occurs through reinforcement. Skinner described two types of reinforcement: positive reinforcement, which is the introduction of a positive consequence such as food, pleasurable activities, or attention from others, and negative reinforcement, which is the removal of a negative consequence such as pain or a loud noise. Skinner saw human behavior as shaped by trial and error through reinforcement and punishment, without any reference to inner conflicts or perceptions. In his theory, mental disorders represented maladaptive behaviors that were learned and could be unlearned through behavior modification.

Behaviorism Today

In the second half of the 20th century, behaviorism was expanded through advances in cognitive theories. While behaviorism and cognitive schools of psychological thought may not agree theoretically, they have complemented each other in practical therapeutic applications like cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT), which has been used widely in the treatment of many different mental disorders, such as phobias, PTSD, and addiction.

Some behavior therapies employ Skinner’s theories of operant conditioning: by not reinforcing certain behaviors, these behaviors can be extinguished. Skinner’s radical behaviorism advanced a “triple contingency” model, which explored the links between the environment, behavior, and the mind. This later gave rise to applied behavior analysis (ABA), in which operant conditioning techniques are used to reinforce positive behaviors and punish unwanted behaviors. This approach to treatment has been an effective tool to help children on the autism spectrum; however, it is considered controversial by many who see it as attempting to change or “normalize” autistic behaviors (Lovaas, 1987, 2003; Sallows & Graupner, 2005; Wolf & Risley, 1967).

The Cognitive Perspective

Cognitive psychology is the school of psychology that examines internal mental processes such as problem solving, memory, and language. “Cognition” refers to thinking and memory processes, and “cognitive development” refers to long-term changes in these processes. Much of the work derived from cognitive psychology has been integrated into various other modern disciplines of psychological study, including social psychology, personality psychology, abnormal psychology, developmental psychology, educational psychology, and behavioral economics.

Cognitive psychology is radically different from previous psychological approaches in that it is characterized by both of the following:

• It accepts the use of the scientific method and generally rejects introspection as a valid method of investigation, unlike phenomenological methods such as Freudian psychoanalysis.
• It explicitly acknowledges the existence of internal mental states (such as belief, desire, and motivation), unlike behaviorist psychology.

Cognitive theory contends that solutions to problems take the form of algorithms, heuristics, or insights. Major areas of research in cognitive psychology include perception, memory, categorization, knowledge representation, numerical cognition, language, and thinking.

History of Cognitive Psychology

Cognitive psychology is one of the more recent additions to psychological research. Though there are examples of cognitive approaches from earlier researchers, cognitive psychology really developed as a subfield within psychology in the late 1950s and early 1960s. The development of the field was heavily influenced by contemporary advancements in technology and computer science.

Early Roots

In 1958, Donald Broadbent integrated concepts from human-performance research and the recently developed information theory in his book Perception and Communication, which paved the way for the information-processing model of cognition. Ulric Neisser is credited with formally having coined the term “cognitive psychology” in his book of the same name, published in 1967. The perspective had its foundations in the Gestalt psychology of Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang Köhler, and Kurt Koffka, and in the work of Jean Piaget, who studied intellectual development in children.

Although no one person is entirely responsible for starting the cognitive revolution, Noam Chomsky was very influential in the early days of this movement. Chomsky (1928–), an American linguist, was dissatisfied with the influence that behaviorism had had on psychology. He believed that psychology’s focus on behavior was short-sighted and that the field had to reincorporate mental functioning into its purview if it were to offer any meaningful contributions to understanding behavior (Miller, 2003).

Jean Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development

Instead of approaching development from a psychoanalytic or psychosocial perspective, Piaget focused on children’s cognitive growth. He is most widely known for his stage theory of cognitive development, which outlines how children become able to think logically and scientifically over time. As they progress to a new stage, there is a distinct shift in how they think and reason.

Jean Piaget Piaget is best known for his stage theory of cognitive development.

The Humanistic Perspective

Humanistic psychology is a psychological perspective that rose to prominence in the mid-20th century, drawing on the philosophies of existentialism and phenomenology, as well as Eastern philosophy. It adopts a holistic approach to human existence through investigations of concepts such as meaning, values, freedom, tragedy, personal responsibility, human potential, spirituality, and self-actualization.

Basic Principles of the Humanistic Perspective

The humanistic perspective is a holistic psychological perspective that attributes human characteristics and actions to free will and an innate drive for self-actualization. This approach focuses on maximum human potential and achievement rather than psychoses and symptoms of disorder. It emphasizes that people are inherently good and pays special attention to personal experiences and creativity. This perspective has led to advances in positive, educational, and industrial psychology, and has been applauded for its successful application to psychotherapy and social issues. Despite its great influence, humanistic psychology has also been criticized for its subjectivity and lack of evidence.

Developments in Humanistic Psychology

In the late 1950s, a group of psychologists convened in Detroit, Michigan, to discuss their interest in a psychology that focused on uniquely human issues, such as the self, self-actualization, health, hope, love, creativity, nature, being, becoming, individuality, and meaning. These preliminary meetings eventually culminated in the description of humanistic psychology as a recognizable “third force” in psychology, along with behaviorism and psychoanalysis. Humanism’s major theorists were Abraham Maslow, Carl Rogers, Rollo May, and Clark Moustakas; it was also influenced by psychoanalytic theorists, including Wilhelm Reich, who discussed an essentially good, healthy core self, and Carl Gustav Jung, who emphasized the concept of archetypes.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Abraham Maslow (1908–1970) is considered the founder of humanistic psychology, and is noted for his conceptualization of a hierarchy of human needs. He believed that every person has a strong desire to realize his or her full potential—or to reach what he called “self-actualization .” Unlike many of his predecessors, Maslow studied mentally healthy individuals instead of people with serious psychological issues. Through his research he coined the term “peak experiences,” which he defined as “high points” in which people feel at harmony with themselves and their surroundings. Self-actualized people, he believed, have more of these peak experiences throughout a given day than others.

To explain his theories, Maslow created a visual, which he termed the “hierarchy of needs.” This pyramid depicts various levels of physical and psychological needs that a person progresses through during their lifetime. At the bottom of the pyramid are the basic physiological needs of a human being, such as food and water. The next level is safety, which includes shelter and needs paramount to physical survival. The third level, love and belonging, is the psychological need to share oneself with others. The fourth level, esteem, focuses on success, status, and accomplishments. The top of the pyramid is self-actualization, in which a person is believed to have reached a state of harmony and understanding. Individuals progress from lower to higher stages throughout their lives, and cannot reach higher stages without first meeting the lower needs that come before them.

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs In Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, a person must first have their lower-level, physical needs met before they can progress to fulfilling higher-level, psychological needs.

Rogers’ Person-Centered Therapy

Carl Rogers (1902–1987) is best known for his person-centered approach, in which the relationship between therapist and client is used to help the patient reach a state of realization, so that they can then help themselves. His non-directive approach focuses more on the present than the past and centers on clients’ capacity for self-direction and understanding of their own development. The therapist encourages the patient to express their feelings and does not suggest how the person might wish to change. Instead, the therapist uses the skills of active listening and mirroring to help patients explore and understand their feelings for themselves.

Carl Rogers Carl Rogers was one of the early pioneers of humanistic psychology, and is best known for his person-centered approach to therapy.

Rogers is also known for practicing “unconditional positive regard,” which is defined as accepting a person in their entirety with no negative judgment of their essential worth. He believed that those raised in an environment of unconditional positive regard have the opportunity to fully actualize themselves, while those raised in an environment of conditional positive regard only feel worthy if they match conditions that have been laid down by others.

May’s Existentialism

Rollo May (1909–1994) was the best known American existential psychologist, and differed from other humanistic psychologists by showing a sharper awareness of the tragic dimensions of human existence. May was influenced by American humanism, and emphasized the importance of human choice.

Advantages and Disadvantages

Humanistic psychology is holistic in nature: it takes whole persons into account rather than their separate traits or processes. In this way, people are not reduced to one particular attribute or set of characteristics, but instead are appreciated for the complex beings that they are. Humanistic psychology allows for a personality concept that is dynamic and fluid and accounts for much of the change a person experiences over a lifetime. It stresses the importance of free will and personal responsibility for decision-making; this view gives the conscious human being some necessary autonomy and frees them from deterministic principles. Perhaps most importantly, the humanistic perspective emphasizes the need to strive for positive goals and explains human potential in a way that other theories cannot.

However, critics have taken issue with many of the early tenets of humanism, such as its lack of empirical evidence (as was the case with most early psychological approaches). Because of the inherent subjective nature of the humanistic approach, psychologists worry that this perspective does not identify enough constant variables in order to be researched with consistency and accuracy. Psychologists also worry that such an extreme focus on the subjective experience of the individual does little to explain or appreciate the impact of external societal factors on personality development. In addition, The major tenet of humanistic personality psychology—namely, that people are innately good and intuitively seek positive goals—does not account for the presence of deviance in the world within normal, functioning personalities.

The Socio-Cultural Perspective

Sociocultural factors are the larger-scale forces within cultures and societies that affect the thoughts, feelings, and behaviors of individuals. These include forces such as attitudes, child-rearing practices, discrimination and prejudice, ethnic and racial identity, gender roles and norms, family and kinship structures, power dynamics, regional differences, religious beliefs and practices, rituals, and taboos. Several subfields within psychology seek to examine these sociocultural factors that influence human mental states and behavior; among these are social psychology (discussed in another section), cultural psychology, and cultural-historical psychology.

Cultural Psychology

Cultural psychology is the study of how psychological and behavioral tendencies are rooted and embedded within culture. The main tenet of cultural psychology is that mind and culture are inseparable and mutually constitutive, meaning that people are shaped by their culture and their culture is also shaped by them.

A major goal of cultural psychology is to expand the number and variation of cultures that contribute to basic psychological theories, so that these theories become more relevant to the predictions, descriptions, and explanations of all human behaviors—not just Western ones. Populations that are Western, educated, and industrialized tend to be overrepresented in psychological research, yet findings from this research tend to be labeled “universal” and inaccurately applied to other cultures. The evidence that social values, logical reasoning, and basic cognitive and motivational processes vary across populations has become increasingly difficult to ignore. By studying only a narrow range of culture within human populations, psychologists fail to account for a substantial amount of diversity.

White American culture Populations that are Western, educated, and industrialized tend to be overrepresented in psychological research. By studying only a narrow range of human culture, psychologists fail to account for a substantial amount of variation.

Cultural psychology is often confused with cross-cultural psychology ; however, it is distinct in that cross-cultural psychologists generally use culture as a means of testing the universality of psychological processes, rather than determining how local cultural practices shape psychological processes. So while a cross-cultural psychologist might ask whether Jean Piaget’s stages of development are universal across a variety of cultures, a cultural psychologist would be interested in how the social practices of a particular set of cultures shape the development of cognitive processes in different ways.

Vygotsky and Cultural-Historical Psychology

Cultural-historical psychology is a psychological theory formed by Lev Vygotsky in the late 1920s and further developed by his students and followers in Eastern Europe and worldwide. This theory focuses on how aspects of culture, such as values, beliefs, customs, and skills, are transmitted from one generation to the next. According to Vygotsky, social interaction—especially involvement with knowledgeable community or family members—helps children to acquire the thought processes and behaviors specific to their culture and/or society. The growth that children experience as a result of these interactions differs greatly between cultures; this variance allows children to become competent in tasks that are considered important or necessary in their particular society.

The Biological Perspective

Biopsychology—also known as biological psychology or psychobiology—is the application of the principles of biology to the study of mental processes and behavior. The fields of behavioral neuroscience, cognitive neuroscience, and neuropsychology are all subfields of biological psychology.

Overview of Biopsychology

Biopsychologists are interested in measuring biological, physiological, and/or genetic variables and attempting to relate them to psychological or behavioral variables. Because all behavior is controlled by the central nervous system, biopsychologists seek to understand how the brain functions in order to understand behavior. Key areas of focus include sensation and perception, motivated behavior (such as hunger, thirst, and sex), control of movement, learning and memory, sleep and biological rhythms, and emotion. As technical sophistication leads to advancements in research methods, more advanced topics, such as language, reasoning, decision-making, and consciousness, are now being studied.

Brain-imaging techniques Different brain-imaging techniques provide scientists with insight into different aspects of how the human brain functions. Three types of scans include (left to right) PET scan (positron emission tomography), CT scan (computed tomography), and fMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging). (credit “left”: modification of work by Health and Human Services Department, National Institutes of Health; credit “center”: modification of work by “Aceofhearts1968″/Wikimedia Commons; credit “right”: modification of work by Kim J, Matthews NL, Park S.)

Behavioral neuroscience has a strong history of contributing to the understanding of medical disorders, including those that fall into the realm of clinical psychology. Neuropsychologists are often employed as scientists to advance scientific or medical knowledge, and neuropsychology is particularly concerned with understanding brain injuries in an attempt to learn about normal psychological functioning. Neuroimaging tools, such as functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) scans, are often used to observe which areas of the brain are active during particular tasks in order to help psychologists understand the link between brain and behavior.

MRI of the human brain Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans of the head are often used to help psychologists understand the links between brain and behavior.

Biopsychology as a scientific discipline emerged from a variety of scientific and philosophical traditions in the 18th and 19th centuries. Philosophers like Rene Descartes proposed physical models to explain animal and human behavior. Descartes suggested, for example, that the pineal gland, a midline unpaired structure in the brain of many organisms, was the point of contact between mind and body. In The Principles of Psychology (1890), William James argued that the scientific study of psychology should be grounded in an understanding of biology. The emergence of both psychology and behavioral neuroscience as legitimate sciences can be traced to the emergence of physiology during the 18th and 19th centuries; however, it was not until 1914 that the term “psychobiology” was first used in its modern sense by Knight Dunlap in An Outline of Psychobiology .

Pineal gland Descartes suggested that the pineal gland was the point of contact between mind and body.

• Theoretical Perspectives in Modern Psychology . Provided by : Boundless. Located at : https://www.boundless.com/psychology/textbooks/boundless-psychology-textbook/introduction-to-psychology-1/theoretical-perspectives-in-modern-psychology-23/biopsychology-117-12654/ . License : CC BY-NC-SA: Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike

AP® Psychology

Psychological perspectives for ap® psychology.

• The Albert Team
• Last Updated On: March 1, 2022

The one constant throughout the entire AP® Psychology exam (and throughout the field of psychology as a whole) is that there are several different viewpoints, or perspectives, about how to think about and interpret human behavior. Whether you are talking about Sigmund Freud or Abraham Maslow, there has been a multitude of varying opinions on why humans act the way they do.

At this point in modern psychology, the varying viewpoints on human behavior have been split into eight different perspectives: biological, behavioral, cognitive, humanistic, psychodynamic, sociocultural, evolutionary, and biopsychosocial. Having an understanding of each of these perspectives is a great way to increase your understanding of the various psychologists, theories, and disorders that you need to know for the AP® Psychology exam. And the best way to do well on the AP® Psychology exam is through understanding rather than straight memorization. That is why we are giving you a brief overview of each psychological perspective!

For most of the perspectives listed we have a more in-depth explanation available, but whether you are crunched for time, or you just need a quick review, this list of Psychological Perspectives for AP® Psychology will give you what you need.

Biological Perspective

To understand what the biological perspective (also known as the neuroscience perspective) is all about, you simply have to look at the name. Bio-psychologists base their explanations of human behavior solely regarding an individual’s biological processes. The three main causes of our thoughts and behaviors in a biological perspective are our genetics, hormones, and neurotransmitters. This means that our behaviors are not so much our choice, but a result of our genetic background, nervous system, and immune system.

A psychologist looking through the biological perspective would explain an individual’s extroverted behavior as a result of their genetic makeup from their parents, and the subsequent effect of those genes on certain neurotransmitters in their brain.

Our crash course review on the biological perspective offers a more detailed explanation.

Behavioral Perspective

Behaviorists and the behavioral perspective, in general, is heavily based on observable behaviors and actions; unlike some of the other perspectives, the behavioral perspective does not pay attention to cognitive processes because they are not observable. The behavioral perspective explains behavior through conditioning (such as classical conditioning ). Essentially, a behavioral psychologist will say that all behavior is learned.

A behavioral psychologist would explain an individual’s introverted behavior through what they have rewarded or punished for in the past. Maybe the individual has been punished in the past for attempting to extend their social circle, or they were rewarded in some way for withdrawing from social interaction. Find out more about the behavioral perspective with our crash course review .

Cognitive Perspective

Unlike the behavioral perspective, the cognitive perspective (as you would guess) is all about our cognitive processes. A cognitive psychologist looks at an individual’s behavior as a result of the way the individual interprets, perceives, and remembers the events and occurrences around them. Essentially, in order to understand an individual’s behavior and actions, you have to understand how they are processing the world around them and also why they are processing it in the way they are. This theory is heavily based on memory and perception as well.

For an individual with introverted behavior, a cognitive psychologist would look at it as how the individual interprets the social situations they are placed in; maybe the individual interprets people asking questions about their life as that they are judgemental, so they withdraw from social interaction.

You can find a more detailed look into the cognitive perspective with the crash course review on our blog.

Humanistic Perspective

The humanistic perspective was inspired mostly by Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers, who both emphasized their psychological viewpoint on free will and individual choice. The general humanistic perspective is also heavily based on Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs (tip: Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs is a very important theory in psychology, always expect a question on it for the AP® Psychology exam). This theory essentially states that for a person to reach their full potential, they need to gain each of the five steps or needs. They are (in order) physiological needs, safety needs, love and belonging needs, esteem needs, and self-actualization needs. In general, the humanistic perspective looks at human behavior as a whole, and that we are in control and chose the majority of our behaviors.

An example of how a humanistic psychologist would approach something is that they may say an introverted person may be choosing to limit their social circle because they find their needs are better met with a smaller group of friends. A critique of this perspective is that it is difficult to test with experiments and through the scientific method.

A more detailed look into the humanistic perspective is also available in our crash course review .

Psychodynamic Perspective

The psychodynamic (or psychoanalytic) perspective relies heavily on how the past has affected an individual’s psychological states. Psychologists who use this perspective believe that our unconscious mind (similar to Freud) is what controls the majority of our cognition and behavior.

Another way of explaining this perspective is that psychodynamic psychologists believe that the reason for anything that an individual does has to do with something in their past. To overcome something in the present, the individual simply has to understand what has happened to them in the past. This is one of the simplest perspectives, however, it is one of the most controversial. In using the same example, a psychodynamic psychologist would explain that an introverted person limiting their social interactions is due to childhood embarrassment or anxiety with social interactions.

Find a more detailed explanation of the psychodynamic perspective with our crash course review .

Sociocultural Perspective

For the sociocultural perspective, psychologists look at an individual’s behavior based on the influence of the individual’s culture. Essentially, this perspective looks at how individuals interact with their social and cultural groups, as well as how these groups influence an individual’s behavior. A social-cultural psychologist would look at an individual’s introverted or extroverted behavior as a result of the cultural rules of social interaction. A person may seem introverted, but in reality, they are following the social norms they have learned from their culture.

For a more detailed look at the sociocultural perspective, check out our crash course review .

Evolutionary Perspective

The evolutionary perspective is based on Charles Darwin’s theory of natural selection. So, an individual’s thoughts and behaviors are based on what would give them the best chance of survival; subsequently, the behaviors that give the best chance of survival are passed on to further generations. An evolutionary psychologist would explain an extroverted behavioral trait as an evolutionarily advantage. If someone is outgoing and extroverted, they could make friends and allies who could protect them and increase their chance for survival.

You can find a more in-depth look into the evolutionary perspective with our crash course review .

Biopsychosocial Perspective

The biopsychosocial perspective is exactly what it sounds like; it is an integrated approach that uses the biological, psychological, and socio-cultural perspective in order to determine causes of behavior and cognitive processes. This perspective is a much more holistic approach to understanding behavior and attributes it to multiple causes rather than a specific approach like the other perspectives.

A psychologist who follows this perspective would look at introverted behavior as a result of genetics and biological processes, or past unrealized experiences, or social-cultural norms, or a combination of all three.

Psychological Perspectives on the AP® Psychology Exam

Understanding the various psychological perspectives is very important for success on the AP® Psychology exam. How any psychological concept, theory, or disorder is looked at comes through the lens of any of the psychological perspectives.

While a question on the psychological perspectives hasn’t come up in recent FRQ’s, it is still likely that you could have to use one of the perspectives as a way to relate to a given scenario. While the history and approaches portion of AP® Psychology only counts for 2-4% of the exam, it is still likely that you will get a multiple choice question relating to one of the perspectives. A multiple choice question may look like one of these examples (found in the Barron’s AP® Psychology review):

1. Behaviorists explain human thought and behavior as a result of

• past conditioning
• unconscious behavioral impulses
• natural selections
• biological processes
• individual choice.

2. In what way might a behaviorist disagree with a cognitive psychologist about the cause of aggression?

• A behaviorist might state that aggression is caused by memories or ways we think about aggressive behavior, while a cognitive psychologist might say aggression is caused by a past repressed experience.
• A behaviorist might state that aggression is a behavior encouraged by our genetic code, while a cognitive psychologist might state that aggression is caused by memories or ways we think about aggressive behavior.
• A behaviorist might state that aggression is caused by past rewards for aggressive behavior, while a cognitive psychologist might believe aggression is caused by an expressed desire to fulfill certain life needs.
• A behaviorist might state that aggression is caused by past rewards for aggressive behavior, while a cognitive psychologist might believe aggression is caused by memories or ways we think about aggressive behavior.
• A behaviorist would not disagree with a cognitive psychologist about aggression because they both believe that aggressive behavior is caused by the way we cognitively process certain behaviors.

The correct answer to question 1 is A, past conditioning. Behaviorists explain actions as learned behavior due to past conditioning (operant or classical).

The correct answer to question 2 is D, a behaviorist might state that aggression is caused by past rewards for aggressive behavior, while a cognitive psychologist might believe aggression is caused by memories or ways we think about aggressive behavior. This is because a behavioral psychologist is going to look at what we have been rewarded or punished for, while a cognitive psychologist wants to explain actions in terms of the way we interpret our environment.

The psychological perspectives are a great way to tie together everything you’ve learned in psychology. For each perspective, you should understand the basis of the viewpoint, as well as the application to a psychological situation.

So that’s it for this review on Psychological Perspectives for AP® Psychology! If you want to look into any of the perspectives further, click on the links in each section of this article. Are you struggling with any other topics for AP® Psychology? We have a supply of crash course reviews that are made to help you break down specific concepts before the exam.

Let’s put everything into practice. Try this AP® Psychology practice question:

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Check out our other articles on  AP® Psychology .

You can also find thousands of practice questions on Albert.io. Albert.io lets you customize your learning experience to target practice where you need the most help. We’ll give you challenging practice questions to help you achieve mastery of AP Psychology.

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How to Write a Psychology Essay

Saul McLeod, PhD

Editor-in-Chief for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester

Saul McLeod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.

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Olivia Guy-Evans, MSc

Associate Editor for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MSc Psychology of Education

Olivia Guy-Evans is a writer and associate editor for Simply Psychology. She has previously worked in healthcare and educational sectors.

On This Page:

Before you write your essay, it’s important to analyse the task and understand exactly what the essay question is asking. Your lecturer may give you some advice – pay attention to this as it will help you plan your answer.

Next conduct preliminary reading based on your lecture notes. At this stage, it’s not crucial to have a robust understanding of key theories or studies, but you should at least have a general “gist” of the literature.

After reading, plan a response to the task. This plan could be in the form of a mind map, a summary table, or by writing a core statement (which encompasses the entire argument of your essay in just a few sentences).

After writing your plan, conduct supplementary reading, refine your plan, and make it more detailed.

It is tempting to skip these preliminary steps and write the first draft while reading at the same time. However, reading and planning will make the essay writing process easier, quicker, and ensure a higher quality essay is produced.

Components of a Good Essay

Now, let us look at what constitutes a good essay in psychology. There are a number of important features.

• Global Structure – structure the material to allow for a logical sequence of ideas. Each paragraph / statement should follow sensibly from its predecessor. The essay should “flow”. The introduction, main body and conclusion should all be linked.
• Each paragraph should comprise a main theme, which is illustrated and developed through a number of points (supported by evidence).
• Knowledge and Understanding – recognize, recall, and show understanding of a range of scientific material that accurately reflects the main theoretical perspectives.
• Critical Evaluation – arguments should be supported by appropriate evidence and/or theory from the literature. Evidence of independent thinking, insight, and evaluation of the evidence.
• Quality of Written Communication – writing clearly and succinctly with appropriate use of paragraphs, spelling, and grammar. All sources are referenced accurately and in line with APA guidelines.

In the main body of the essay, every paragraph should demonstrate both knowledge and critical evaluation.

There should also be an appropriate balance between these two essay components. Try to aim for about a 60/40 split if possible.

Most students make the mistake of writing too much knowledge and not enough evaluation (which is the difficult bit).

It is best to structure your essay according to key themes. Themes are illustrated and developed through a number of points (supported by evidence).

Choose relevant points only, ones that most reveal the theme or help to make a convincing and interesting argument.

Knowledge and Understanding

Remember that an essay is simply a discussion / argument on paper. Don’t make the mistake of writing all the information you know regarding a particular topic.

You need to be concise, and clearly articulate your argument. A sentence should contain no unnecessary words, a paragraph no unnecessary sentences.

Each paragraph should have a purpose / theme, and make a number of points – which need to be support by high quality evidence. Be clear why each point is is relevant to the argument. It would be useful at the beginning of each paragraph if you explicitly outlined the theme being discussed (.e.g. cognitive development, social development etc.).

Try not to overuse quotations in your essays. It is more appropriate to use original content to demonstrate your understanding.

Psychology is a science so you must support your ideas with evidence (not your own personal opinion). If you are discussing a theory or research study make sure you cite the source of the information.

Note this is not the author of a textbook you have read – but the original source / author(s) of the theory or research study.

For example:

Bowlby (1951) claimed that mothering is almost useless if delayed until after two and a half to three years and, for most children, if delayed till after 12 months, i.e. there is a critical period.

Maslow (1943) stated that people are motivated to achieve certain needs. When one need is fulfilled a person seeks to fullfil the next one, and so on.

As a general rule, make sure there is at least one citation (i.e. name of psychologist and date of publication) in each paragraph.

Remember to answer the essay question. Underline the keywords in the essay title. Don’t make the mistake of simply writing everything you know of a particular topic, be selective. Each paragraph in your essay should contribute to answering the essay question.

Critical Evaluation

In simple terms, this means outlining the strengths and limitations of a theory or research study.

There are many ways you can critically evaluate:

Methodological evaluation of research

Is the study valid / reliable ? Is the sample biased, or can we generalize the findings to other populations? What are the strengths and limitations of the method used and data obtained?

Be careful to ensure that any methodological criticisms are justified and not trite.

Rather than hunting for weaknesses in every study; only highlight limitations that make you doubt the conclusions that the authors have drawn – e.g., where an alternative explanation might be equally likely because something hasn’t been adequately controlled.

Compare or contrast different theories

Outline how the theories are similar and how they differ. This could be two (or more) theories of personality / memory / child development etc. Also try to communicate the value of the theory / study.

Debates or perspectives

Refer to debates such as nature or nurture, reductionism vs. holism, or the perspectives in psychology . For example, would they agree or disagree with a theory or the findings of the study?

What are the ethical issues of the research?

Does a study involve ethical issues such as deception, privacy, psychological or physical harm?

Gender bias

If research is biased towards men or women it does not provide a clear view of the behavior that has been studied. A dominantly male perspective is known as an androcentric bias.

Cultural bias

Is the theory / study ethnocentric? Psychology is predominantly a white, Euro-American enterprise. In some texts, over 90% of studies have US participants, who are predominantly white and middle class.

Does the theory or study being discussed judge other cultures by Western standards?

Animal Research

This raises the issue of whether it’s morally and/or scientifically right to use animals. The main criterion is that benefits must outweigh costs. But benefits are almost always to humans and costs to animals.

Animal research also raises the issue of extrapolation. Can we generalize from studies on animals to humans as their anatomy & physiology is different from humans?

The PEC System

It is very important to elaborate on your evaluation. Don’t just write a shopping list of brief (one or two sentence) evaluation points.

Instead, make sure you expand on your points, remember, quality of evaluation is most important than quantity.

When you are writing an evaluation paragraph, use the PEC system.

• Make your P oint.
• E xplain how and why the point is relevant.
• Discuss the C onsequences / implications of the theory or study. Are they positive or negative?

For Example

• Point: It is argued that psychoanalytic therapy is only of benefit to an articulate, intelligent, affluent minority.
• Explain: Because psychoanalytic therapy involves talking and gaining insight, and is costly and time-consuming, it is argued that it is only of benefit to an articulate, intelligent, affluent minority. Evidence suggests psychoanalytic therapy works best if the client is motivated and has a positive attitude.
• Consequences: A depressed client’s apathy, flat emotional state, and lack of motivation limit the appropriateness of psychoanalytic therapy for depression.

Furthermore, the levels of dependency of depressed clients mean that transference is more likely to develop.

Using Research Studies in your Essays

Research studies can either be knowledge or evaluation.

• If you refer to the procedures and findings of a study, this shows knowledge and understanding.
• If you comment on what the studies shows, and what it supports and challenges about the theory in question, this shows evaluation.

Writing an Introduction

It is often best to write your introduction when you have finished the main body of the essay, so that you have a good understanding of the topic area.

If there is a word count for your essay try to devote 10% of this to your introduction.

Ideally, the introduction should;

Identify the subject of the essay and define the key terms. Highlight the major issues which “lie behind” the question. Let the reader know how you will focus your essay by identifying the main themes to be discussed. “Signpost” the essay’s key argument, (and, if possible, how this argument is structured).

Introductions are very important as first impressions count and they can create a h alo effect in the mind of the lecturer grading your essay. If you start off well then you are more likely to be forgiven for the odd mistake later one.

Writing a Conclusion

So many students either forget to write a conclusion or fail to give it the attention it deserves.

If there is a word count for your essay try to devote 10% of this to your conclusion.

Ideally the conclusion should summarize the key themes / arguments of your essay. State the take home message – don’t sit on the fence, instead weigh up the evidence presented in the essay and make a decision which side of the argument has more support.

Also, you might like to suggest what future research may need to be conducted and why (read the discussion section of journal articles for this).

Don”t include new information / arguments (only information discussed in the main body of the essay).

If you are unsure of what to write read the essay question and answer it in one paragraph.

Points that unite or embrace several themes can be used to great effect as part of your conclusion.

The Importance of Flow

Obviously, what you write is important, but how you communicate your ideas / arguments has a significant influence on your overall grade. Most students may have similar information / content in their essays, but the better students communicate this information concisely and articulately.

When you have finished the first draft of your essay you must check if it “flows”. This is an important feature of quality of communication (along with spelling and grammar).

This means that the paragraphs follow a logical order (like the chapters in a novel). Have a global structure with themes arranged in a way that allows for a logical sequence of ideas. You might want to rearrange (cut and paste) paragraphs to a different position in your essay if they don”t appear to fit in with the essay structure.

To improve the flow of your essay make sure the last sentence of one paragraph links to first sentence of the next paragraph. This will help the essay flow and make it easier to read.

Finally, only repeat citations when it is unclear which study / theory you are discussing. Repeating citations unnecessarily disrupts the flow of an essay.

Referencing

The reference section is the list of all the sources cited in the essay (in alphabetical order). It is not a bibliography (a list of the books you used).

In simple terms every time you cite/refer to a name (and date) of a psychologist you need to reference the original source of the information.

If you have been using textbooks this is easy as the references are usually at the back of the book and you can just copy them down. If you have been using websites, then you may have a problem as they might not provide a reference section for you to copy.

References need to be set out APA style :

Author, A. A. (year). Title of work . Location: Publisher.

Journal Articles

Author, A. A., Author, B. B., & Author, C. C. (year). Article title. Journal Title, volume number (issue number), page numbers

A simple way to write your reference section is use Google scholar . Just type the name and date of the psychologist in the search box and click on the “cite” link.

Next, copy and paste the APA reference into the reference section of your essay.

Once again, remember that references need to be in alphabetical order according to surname.

Free APA Journals ™ Articles

Recently published articles from subdisciplines of psychology covered by more than 90 APA Journals™ publications.

For additional free resources (such as article summaries, podcasts, and more), please visit the Highlights in Psychological Research page.

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• Published: 25 September 2024

Exploring job satisfaction in fitness franchises: a study from a human talent perspective

• Mario Alberto Salazar-Altamirano 1 ,
• Esthela Galván-Vela 2 ,
• Rafael Ravina-Ripoll 3 &
• Maria Rubi Bello-Campuzano 2  

BMC Psychology volume  12 , Article number:  489 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

Metrics details

This qualitative study investigates job satisfaction and its impact on the performance of human talent in fitness club franchises in Mexico, based on six semi-structured in-depth interviews conducted in October 2023. The research highlights that internal communication is the primary factor influencing job satisfaction, followed by interpersonal relationships and organisational climate. These findings imply that enhancing internal communication and fostering healthy interpersonal relationships can significantly improve employee well-being and job performance. The study aims to understand job satisfaction from the human talent perspective, focusing on the factors that affect their satisfaction and performance. The insights gained can inform strategies to improve work life quality and industry efficiency in Mexico, serving as a benchmark for future research and a strategic tool for human resource management in similar organisations.

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Introduction

The success of fitness club franchises in Mexico relies on several critical factors, including advanced technology, high-quality facilities, and, crucially, highly trained and satisfied human talent [ 1 ]. Attention to human talent, grounded in ethical, scientific, and human principles, goes beyond technical aspects to foster deep satisfaction among both franchise staff and clients [ 2 , 3 ].

Job satisfaction in Mexican fitness franchises involves a complex interaction between human talent and customers [ 4 ]. As defined by [ 5 ], job satisfaction is inherently linked to the interaction between individuals and their work environment. This 'emotional dance' affects both staff performance perceptions and customer experiences within their daily fitness routines [ 6 ]. The satisfaction level of human talent reflects individual well-being and serves as a crucial indicator of service quality and effectiveness [ 7 ]. However, assessments often prioritise client perceptions, overlooking the significant efforts of staff in maintaining service excellence.

Research highlights the importance of service quality for both customer and staff satisfaction in fitness franchises [ 8 ]. Conversely, other studies indicate rising dissatisfaction among fitness professionals due to a lack of recognition, autonomy, and task overload [ 9 ]. Internationally, job dissatisfaction has increased due to worsening working conditions and higher workloads, with the World Health Organization (WHO) warning of negative impacts, including demotivation and decreased service quality [ 10 ].

In Mexico, labour policies have significantly influenced the fitness industry. Specifically, a lack of human talent planning and labour reforms have led franchises to focus on welfare, often neglecting their responsibility to preserve the health and well-being of their staff [ 11 ]. According to INEGI's MOPRADEF, in 2021, 39.6% of Mexico's adult population reported being physically active, with a notable increase in those using private facilities [ 12 ]. These statistics underscore the relevance of physical activity in the Mexican adult population.

Furthermore, the 2030 Agenda and the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) emphasise the urgent need to address human talent well-being [ 13 ]. Job dissatisfaction extends beyond the workplace, leading to burnout, chronic stress, and mental health issues [ 14 ]. Addressing this phenomenon is therefore a moral duty and a social investment in creating a healthier and more productive work environment [ 15 ].

Research objectives

This study aims to explore job satisfaction in fitness franchises in Mexico, focusing on the following objectives:

Understand human talent perceptions and their impact on performance.

Analyse factors influencing job satisfaction.

Provide insights to improve work life quality and industry efficiency in Mexico.

This relationship has been evidenced in previous studies showing that job satisfaction is significantly related to higher employee performance [ 16 ].

Research questions

What factors influence job satisfaction in this environment?

How are professional development opportunities and working conditions linked to job satisfaction?

What challenges or improvements can enhance job satisfaction?

This research serves as a benchmark for future studies and a strategic tool for human resource management by offering a holistic perspective. Despite extensive literature on job satisfaction, this study uniquely focuses on an international fitness club franchise, providing valuable insights into a specialised context. The re-engineering of human resource strategies, including high-performance work practices, is essential for maintaining employee efficiency and well-being during and after the pandemic [ 17 ].

Theoretical framework

Job satisfaction.

Job satisfaction is fundamental to organisational psychology and human resource management [ 18 ]. It refers to the degree of contentment, well-being, and gratification that employees experience in their workplace [ 19 ], encompassing various aspects such as interactions with colleagues and superiors, working conditions, career development opportunities, remuneration, and job security [ 14 ].

Understanding job satisfaction is crucial as it directly impacts multiple organisational aspects [ 1 ]. Satisfied employees are more productive, committed, and loyal to the company [ 20 ]. Additionally, job satisfaction can influence the quality of an organisation's products or services [ 21 ], making it a critical factor for a company's success and effectiveness [ 22 ].

Measuring job satisfaction is essential in human resource research and management. Methods include surveys and questionnaires to obtain quantitative data on aspects such as work environment, interpersonal relationships, and working conditions [ 23 ]. In-depth interviews and direct observations capture subjective dimensions like employees' emotions and personal experiences [ 24 , 25 ]. Combining these approaches allows researchers to gain a comprehensive and contextualised understanding of job satisfaction, crucial for addressing its complexity and effects on employee well-being and organisational performance [ 26 ].

Several authors, such as [ 27 ] and [ 28 ], have highlighted the importance of researching and addressing job satisfaction across different contexts and sectors, as the needs and expectations of employees can vary widely. In the context of fitness club franchises in Mexico, it is essential to consider industry-specific factors, such as the constant demand for specialised services and the importance of maintaining a healthy and motivating work environment [ 29 ].

There is also growing international awareness of the relationship between job satisfaction, strengthening institutions, and the broader economy [ 9 ]. Satisfied employees are more likely to contribute positively to economic productivity and social well-being [ 30 ]. This connection has increased interest in understanding and improving job satisfaction to strengthen institutions and promote sustainable economic development [ 18 ]. Therefore, job satisfaction is a central concept in the workplace, encompassing employee well-being and satisfaction. Its study is essential as it influences productivity, talent retention, and service quality. Moreover, its role in improving institutions and the economy is recognised.

Job satisfaction in fitness club franchises

The analysis of job satisfaction in fitness club franchises is of vital importance due to the unique characteristics of this sector [ 1 ]. These franchises operate in a highly competitive environment, where providing fitness and wellness services requires specialisation and faces constant demand [ 31 ].

Thus, job satisfaction plays a crucial role in customer experience, as there is a direct relationship between employee well-being and the quality of service provided [ 32 ]. Satisfied employees tend to provide a more friendly, committed and high-quality service, directly influencing customer loyalty [ 33 ].

In addition, fitness club franchises face the constant challenge of motivating and retaining their staff in a work environment often characterised by high employee turnover [ 34 ]. To maintain high service standards, human resource management plays a crucial role in implementing policies and practices that promote the satisfaction and well-being of human talent [ 35 ].

In short, job satisfaction in fitness club franchises is essential to ensure quality of service and customer loyalty in a competitive and constantly evolving industry. Understanding and managing job satisfaction in this context is critical to the success of these franchises in the fitness industry.

Contextualisation of job satisfaction for Mexico

Job satisfaction, a concept studied globally, reveals a unique dimension when examined within the specific context of Mexico [ 36 ]. Several economic, cultural, and social factors significantly influence how human talent perceives and experiences job satisfaction in this country [ 37 ]. This contextualised perspective underscores the importance of analysing job satisfaction within Mexico, considering its particularities and dynamics.

One of the main factors influencing job satisfaction in Mexico is the country's economic situation, characterised by significant variations in income levels and wealth distribution across regions and sectors [ 38 ]. This economic disparity directly impacts how employees value their employment and the working conditions they experience. Additionally, Mexico's rich and diverse culture plays a crucial role; values such as the importance of family, community, and personal relationships are fundamental. Loyalty to the company and solidarity among colleagues are highly valued, significantly influencing job satisfaction perceptions [ 39 ].

Moreover, Mexico grapples with distinct labour challenges, such as the prevalence of informal employment, high turnover rates in certain sectors, and the need to balance economic competitiveness with improved working conditions [ 40 ]. These challenges offer fertile ground for research aimed at enhancing job satisfaction within the country. Previous studies in Mexico have laid a solid foundation for understanding the intricate dynamics of job satisfaction. For instance, research by [ 39 ] has identified numerous factors that influence job satisfaction in Mexican firms that adopt work arrangements like telework. These factors encompass job responsibilities, company-provided training, relationships with supervisors, and workplace environmental conditions.

A recent study by [ 41 ] further elucidates job satisfaction in Mexico, demonstrating that human resource development, organisational culture, and leadership style significantly impact employee satisfaction. These factors function both independently and interactively, shaping employees' perceptions of their job satisfaction. This complexity underscores that job satisfaction arises from the dynamic interplay of multiple elements rather than a single factor. Consequently, an effective strategy to enhance job satisfaction must adopt a holistic approach, encompassing both individual and organisational aspects, to address the multifaceted nature of this phenomenon.

Methodology

To conduct this research, a qualitative approach with a phenomenological perspective was adopted to analyse job satisfaction factors in a fitness club franchise in Mexico. The study sample comprised six team members in various roles within the franchise, including six coaches, two front desk professionals, and one unit leader. Despite efforts to engage more participants, only six individuals could be interviewed in-depth, which required multiple attempts over several days in October 2023 at the franchise's premises.

The participants included one front desk professional and five-unit trainers, providing diverse perspectives and enriching the understanding of job satisfaction factors within the fitness franchise. This diversity allowed for a comprehensive exploration of the motivations behind job satisfaction in this context. The group consisted of two women and four men, aged between 25 and 29, reflecting some generational diversity and a predominance of men, hinting at possible gender trends within the workforce.

Data collection was conducted through semi-structured interviews, addressing thirteen key aspects ranging from the work environment to suggestions for improvement. Each interview lasted approximately 35 to 45 minutes, facilitating an in-depth exploration of participants' perceptions and experiences regarding their job satisfaction. The semi-structured interviews consisted of three stages: collecting sociodemographic information, posing introductory questions to ease participants into the discussion, and asking 17 key questions aimed at extracting detailed insights. Examples of these key questions included: ‘’How do you get along with your colleagues and bosses? (Why?)’’, ‘’Do you feel valued or appreciated? (Why?)’’, and ‘’Do you have any ideas or suggestions to make your job at the gym more satisfying?’’

During the interviews, an atmosphere conducive to free and detailed expression was meticulously fostered. The interview structure was flexibly adapted, allowing for adjustments based on the flow of conversation and the participants' willingness to share their insights. Emphasising a strong ethical foundation and strict confidentiality assured participants that their responses would remain anonymous, thereby encouraging honest and confident expressions. In several instances, participants provided concise answers, often limited to simple ‘’yes’’ or ‘’no’’ responses. To enrich these explanations and extract more detailed information, follow-up questions were immediately employed.

The collected information was analysed using ATLAS.ti 23 software, enabling coding and exploration of interview contents. The transcripts of the six interviews were imported into the software, where they underwent thorough analysis and categorisation. This study followed a specific unit of analysis for creating codes, examining the sentences in participants' responses. This methodological approach aligns with the research process proposed by [ 42 ] in 2019, based on Grounded Theory's three steps: open coding, axial coding, and selective coding. Importantly, the coding process was conducted inductively, meaning that codes and categories were derived directly from the data, allowing for a more objective analysis based on participants' responses.

After the data was entered into ATLAS.ti 23, the coding process for the interview segments began. Initially, 327 individual codes were identified. To streamline the organisation and interpretation of the data, ten primary codes were selected to serve as main categories. These categories were then used to classify and structure the related codes. Table 1 provides a detailed breakdown of the number of codes assigned to each primary category.

These categories represent the thematic organisation derived from the interviews, formed after generating and assigning codes to the interview contents. Emerging inductively, these categories reflect recurring themes in the collected data. The broadest category, ‘‘Work-Life Balance’’, encompassed the majority of codes, indicating its prominence in participants' discussions, followed by "Work Stress." Conversely, ‘’Job Experience and Perceived Job Satisfaction’’ had the fewest codes, suggesting this theme was less recurrent in the interviews. The following sections will analyse these categories in detail, providing a deeper understanding of the findings.

Work-life balance

The first segment explored in this analysis refers to the ‘’Work-life Balance’’ of human talent, revealed through the codes summarised in Table 2 within the same category. A prominent finding in this category emerged in response to the question, ‘’How do you balance your personal life with your work at the gym?’’ In this context, one of the interviewees shared her experience by stating, ‘’It is a daily effort; I organise my thoughts and focus on my work, leaving personal concerns aside. Sometimes occupational therapy and immersion in work support me in achieving this balance’’. In addition, it is essential to note that the support of a mental health professional has played a significant role in her search for work-life balance.

Furthermore, the relationship between work-family conflict and job satisfaction has been widely studied. Recent studies, such as [ 43 ], have shown that supervisor support can significantly moderate this conflict, improving employee job satisfaction.

Our analysis of human talent revealed a multitude of influential factors, such as work-life balance, time management, workplace conflict, flexibility, self-evaluation, professionalism, self-improvement, self-confidence, socialisation outside of work, mindfulness, reflection, autonomy, and occupational therapy. These factors align with previous research by [ 44 ] and [ 45 ], as well as the short questionnaire developed by [ 46 ], which incorporates most of these categories.

Work-life balance emerged as particularly significant. Within the fitness club industry, many participants expressed a passion for their work activities, which helps them achieve a harmonious balance between their professional and personal lives. For instance, one participant stated: ‘’It does not affect my life; on the contrary. I like and am passionate about what I do.’’ This sentiment echoes findings by [ 47 ], which highlight that work can significantly impact personal life, especially when it infringes upon free time. Such interference can disrupt the balance between work and personal life, influencing overall job satisfaction.

Moreover, [ 48 ] suggests that flexible working hours enhance autonomy in schedule management, promoting a more effective work-life balance. Conversely, a lack of flexibility can hinder achieving this balance, as evidenced by employees having to leave secondary jobs due to schedule adjustments. This situation underscores the need for employers to provide flexible working hours to support their employees' work-life balance and job satisfaction. To visualise the relationships and flow of categories and codes derived from our coding analysis, a semantic map was created. This map, based on each participant's input during the interviews, graphically represents the interconnectedness and dynamics of the data (Fig. 1 ).

Source: ATLAS.ti 23

Work-Life Balance category

In the analysis of work-related stress, research was conducted to characterise the perceptions and motivations contributing to work-related stress and the coping strategies employed by participants. Four of the six participants interviewed reported experiencing stress, while two reported not feeling stressed in their work environment. These findings are consistent with stress trends in the workplace in Mexico, where the situation is notably concerning.

According to recent studies, 60% of Mexican human talent report significant stress levels, adversely affecting their health and motivation at work. Consequently, Mexico is ranked as the country with the highest levels of work-related stress globally. Authors have noted that 63% of Mexicans have encountered stressful situations in their workplaces over the past two years.

During the interviews, various codes related to stress and the strategies used to manage it were identified. These codes are detailed in Table 3 . Notable terms among the codes include "stress," ‘’psychological therapy’’, ‘’suppression of emotions’’, ‘’absence of stress’’, ‘’self-care’’, ‘’emotional balance’’, ‘’relaxation’’, ‘’self-confidence’’, ‘’sociability’’, ‘’concentration’’, ‘’reflection,’’ and ‘’difficulties at work’’.

In work-related stress, the human talent interviewed presented significant stress levels. When addressing the question, "Do you feel that your daily work generates stress?" most participants answered in the affirmative. A representative example is the participant who shared: ‘’ Yes, I feel stress. There are times when we interact with vulgar people, and although we have to keep a friendly attitude, sometimes absorbing the bad mood and negativity of users affects us’’. In terms of strategies used to cope with work-related stress, some mentioned seeking psychological support to address this specific aspect. Others pointed out that they do not take interactions with users personally and seek to suppress their emotions as an alternative to avoid stress.

Therefore, the importance of addressing job stress in the context of fitness club franchises is highlighted by authors such as [ 49 ] in their work "Theories of Psychological Stress at Work." This chapter discusses various theories related to work stress, most notably the "Work Demand-Control-Support Model", which highlights the relevance of balancing work demands with control and support in the work environment. Finally, a semantic map has been draw to visualise and understand the flow of the category and the codes resulting from the analysis. This map is derived from the intervention and the information provided by each participant in the interviews (Fig. 2 ).

Work-related stress category

Given the significance of this issue and its impact on the health and well-being of human talent, it is crucial to address work-related stress promptly. This approach aligns with the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) of the UN 2030 Agenda, which advocate for decent working conditions and employee well-being as part of a sustainable future.

Communication

Effective internal communication is defined as the process of exchanging information, knowledge, and feedback between the unit leader or manager and the employees of the fitness franchise [ 42 , 50 ]. This category aims to understand the impact of internal communication on the organisation's work dynamics. Previous research has shown that effective internal communication can mitigate feelings of loneliness and rejection sensitivity in the workplace, thereby improving job performance and overall job satisfaction [ 51 ].

Table 4 presents the codes identified within the ‘’Internal Communication’’ category. Among the codes collected, the most recurrent was ‘’Lack of Communication’’, which reflects a lack of effective communication between the leadership and the unit's employees. On the other hand, the least mentioned code was "Good Relationship with the Leader", suggesting that the relationship and effective communication with the leader are areas for improvement in this work context.

A representative example of this category emerged when participants were asked, "Does your boss communicate clearly and professionally about what he expects from you and provide useful feedback on your work?" One participant responded, ‘’He does not talk to me, he does not give me feedback, he is freezing. However, I think it is a personal issue, as I notice he is more open with others’’.

When asked if they knew whom to turn to in case of problems or unusual situations, one participant stated, ‘’We can communicate with someone, but we are not sure if we will get a solution. They listen to us, and that is it. If we have a serious problem with our leader, we doubt if anyone can offer us a solution’’.

This scenario reflects the perception of limited effectiveness in problem-solving within the organisation, which could influence job satisfaction and the perception of support from the company. These findings are consistent with previous research by [ 52 ] and [ 38 ], which highlight the correlation between effective internal communication and several critical aspects, such as feedback, problem-solving, and effective leadership. These factors directly influence human talent's perception of their work environment and job satisfaction, underscoring the importance of internal communication in organisations.

Moreover, organisational climate significantly impacts employee satisfaction and overall performance. Effective internal communication is essential for maintaining a positive work environment, facilitating better relationships between employees and management, and resolving conflicts. Research [ 53 ] indicates that emotional intelligence (EI) significantly impacts employee performance and engagement through job satisfaction, acting as a mediator in these relationships. This underscores the importance of EI in fostering a supportive and productive organisational climate. Developing EI within teams can lead to improved job satisfaction and performance, highlighting the need for effective internal communication strategies.

These findings also support the Communication as Management Theory, which considers internal communication a strategic tool for managing organisations. This theoretical approach views internal communication as a means to promote the participation of human talent, improve the work climate, and strengthen organisational culture. To illustrate this, a semantic map was created, based on participant interviews, to graphically represent the interconnectedness and relationships between categories and codes derived from the authors' coding analysis (Fig. 3 ).

Internal Communication category

Work motivation refers to the reasons, desires and needs that drive human talent towards achieving their goals and objectives in the work environment [ 54 , 55 ]. This concept is not limited only to internal or external factors. However, it encompasses an amalgam of elements that impact the commitment, satisfaction and effort employees are willing to invest in their work [ 56 ].

Given the above, within the scope of the work motivation category, six distinct codes have been identified, detailed in Table 5 : demotivation, assertive motivation, lack of leader support, lack of leader recognition, performance appraisal and self-motivation. These codes capture work motivation's complex dynamics, as reflected in the interviews.

When human talent was asked if they felt valued or appreciated in their work environment, two participants felt a lack of value and appreciation. This perception is based on the need for a structured method to evaluate performance and the lack of recognition by their leader or manager. One interviewee ‘’ highlighted the lack of an evaluation process, both internal and external, to track their progress". This response highlights the concern of employees about the lack of recognition and appreciation of their work’’.

On the other hand, when it was explored whether they felt that their team whether colleagues or leader, gave them support and motivated them to improve in their work, 100% of the participants stated that they felt support and encouragement from their team. However, support from their leader was less recurrent, with only 20% of respondents agreeing that they felt this level of support. For example, one participant: ‘’ highlighted that not all colleagues offer the necessary support and some lack support. Despite this lack of support from some peers, those with whom he has good relationships motivate him and assist him to the best of their ability’’ . It underlines the relevance of team support in employee work motivation.

This aspect becomes even more relevant when we link it to the Job Demands-Resources Theory, developed by [ 57 ] in 2014, and more recent research, such as the findings of [ 58 ] in 2020. This widely recognised theory offers an insightful view of how job demands and resources can impact the motivation and, thus, job satisfaction of professionals.

In addition, the absence of an appraisal system that allows employees to measure their performance and compare themselves with their colleagues has contributed to this moderation in motivation. An objective rating system and constructive competition among staff could significantly drive increased motivation in the work environment. This finding highlights the importance of establishing feedback and appraisal systems that empower human talent to reach their full potential and sustain motivation in the workplace. To better visualise and understand the interconnectedness of the categories and the resulting codes, a semantic map was created (Fig. 4 ).

Motivation category

Professional development

Professional development in the workplace can be defined as the process by which employees expand their knowledge, skills and experiences to advance their careers [ 59 ]. This expansion involves acquiring new skills and qualifications and the possibility of achieving higher levels of responsibility and leadership within the organisation.

Then, within the professional development category, several codes were identified that reflect employees' experiences and perceptions (Table  6 ). Among the most recurrent codes are professional growth, occasional training, and personal development, change of location, personalized service and performance appraisal. These elements play a vital role in the perception of development opportunities within the company.

When participants were queried about their perceived opportunities for growth and development within their roles, the responses were notably diverse. Five participants recognised the presence of growth opportunities in their current positions. However, they noted that such prospects could be enhanced if they were open to relocating, either to another city or a different unit within the same city. One participant illustrated this sentiment by mentioning, “The possibility of connecting with other employees or changing location to access new development opportunities”.

Furthermore, when participants were asked about the availability of training or educational opportunities to enhance their job skills, there was a general consensus that such opportunities were provided. However, these were predominantly in the form of virtual courses and training videos. One participant noted, “ That area of opportunity in our area, continuous training, is missing” , underscoring the concern for the quality and relevance of virtual training and the need for more effective training programmes.

These insights align with the notion of providing targeted training to develop specific work-related competencies, as proposed by [ 60 ]. This approach suggests better competence indicators can be obtained by assessing successful life outcomes and the competencies that contribute to achieving them. By identifying relevant criteria, assessing communication skills, and considering both professional and personal success, a holistic and practical view of competence and skills development can be achieved, thereby fostering general growth in both work and life. To map and visualise the relationship and flow of categories and codes effectively, a semantic map was created based on the interview data (Fig. 5 ).

Compensation and benefits

Salary compensation and benefits provided to organisational staff can be defined as the package of financial rewards and employment advantages that employees receive as part of their employment contract [ 61 ]. In this compensation category, six significant codes were identified: financial benefits, job benefits, turnover, working time, social support and quality (Table 7 ).

Therefore, it is essential to highlight that five interviewee’s expressed satisfaction with their salary compensation. They emphasised that, given their five-hour working day, they consider their remuneration fair compared to other fitness clubs. They agreed in response to whether they were happy with their salary and benefits. For example, one participant mentioned: “I think the salary is excellent, given the short working hours, and I have no complaints. I am satisfied in that sense”.

In contrast, the only counter-response came from a participant who said: "Better pay would be better. In a way, this system is designed to benefit both parties. Some may consider it unfair, but if we compare it to other companies or gyms in the same sector, we come out ahead in all aspects. Although it may be 50-50 or maybe not for some people, it seems fair."

In addition, an important finding occurred with two specific responses. One participant indicated that she was satisfied with her compensation but wanted to receive food vouchers or social support as part of her benefits. She commented, “We have a pretty good salary. However, as a franchise, we do not have food vouchers. Other units in Mexico and Monterrey offer food vouchers, which can benefit employees. Things like backpacks, thermoses, anything. We do not have that; that would be perfect”.

At this point, previous research has highlighted the importance of the geographical location in which the job is performed. It has been observed that, in Western countries, wage compensation is not considered a relevant factor influencing job satisfaction. In contrast, in developing countries, this variable is a positive and significant factor in job satisfaction, as evidenced in previous research, such as that carried out by [ 62 ]. These studies highlight how context considerably influences the perception of wage compensation and its relationship with job satisfaction.

Thus, the findings of this research contribute to Herzberg's two-factor motivation theory. This theory holds that there are hygiene factors, such as compensation, which, when absent or inadequate, can cause job dissatisfaction [ 63 ]. On the other hand, motivational factors, such as recognition and career growth, drive job satisfaction and intrinsic motivation. The results of this study support the importance of hygiene factors, as fair wage compensation was identified as a crucial element for employee job satisfaction [ 62 ]. It underlines how adequate compensation can act as a motivating factor and contribute to employee well-being and job satisfaction in the context of this study. Finally, the authors developed a semantic map to visualise and understand the flow of categories and codes resulting from the coding analysis (Fig. 6 ).

Compensation and Benefits Category

Interpersonal relations

“Interpersonal Relationships in the Workplace” refers to the interactions and bonds between individuals in the work environment [ 64 ]. This category encompasses relationships between work colleagues, managing potential interpersonal conflicts, forming friendships in the workplace, effective team collaboration, and employees' interaction with their leaders or superiors [ 65 ].

It is also important to note that these relationships significantly influence job satisfaction and organisational efficiency [ 66 ]. The codes associated with this category, such as “Good relationship between colleagues”, “Interpersonal conflicts”, “Friendship”, “Teamwork", and “Relationship with the leader” (see Table 8 ), summaries and capture the essential dimensions of interpersonal relationships in the work context.

To this end, all participants expressed having positive relationships with their co-workers, although they stressed that this does not apply uniformly to all their colleagues. For example, when asked how they get along with their colleagues and superiors, one participant explained: "I have a good relationship with my leader. I try to distinguish between being a boss and a colleague, as we have had interactions outside of work but in the work environment. Overall, I can say it is good, but to be honest, I do not get along with everyone. If you were to mention a name, I could not stand it at all. There are one or two colleagues in my work group that I do not like, and I have no interest in becoming friends with them."

Similarly, another participant expressed the following in response to the same question: "I try to approach my relationships with co-workers in both a professional and friendly manner to maintain a harmonious balance. However, in terms of 100% of the staff, I think I can get along very well with 80%. However, with the remaining 20%, we have experienced situations that have made it difficult to establish a good professional and personal relationship".

Therefore, it is supported by previous research by [ 67 ], who found that friendships in the work environment significantly positively impact decision-making and motor task performance. This finding underscores the relevance of cultivating friendly relationships in the workplace, as they are significantly correlated with decision-making, as well as with job satisfaction and productivity.

Furthermore, the results obtained in this study can be related to Social Exchange Theory. This theory focuses on social interactions as an exchange process in which people seek to maximise rewards and minimise costs in their interpersonal relationships [ 6 ]. It argues that relationships are maintained when people perceive that they are gaining benefits and broken when they perceive inequalities in these exchanges [ 68 ]. Finally, we drew a semantic map to identify and visualise the flow of categories and codes resulting from the authors' coding analysis (Fig. 7 ).

Category Interpersonal Relationships

Working environment

The work environment or organisational climate in the business environment refers to the set of factors, perceptions and conditions that characterise the work atmosphere within an organization [ 69 ]. In this context, the category of “work environment” has been coded into five (Table 9 ): “work conflicts”, “good work environment”, “uncertainty”, “toxic work environment” and “task overload”.

To explore the work environment category, participants were asked: "How would you describe the atmosphere in the gym?" The findings revealed that five of the six participants mentioned the presence of work conflicts, primarily attributing these conflicts to leadership and personal egos among colleagues. For instance, one participant pointed to "the leader's preference for some employees as a source of tension in the work environment." Another participant expressed uncertainty, noting: " The working environment can be improved; we can all improve it. One can interpret it as an average environment. Sometimes it is nice, and sometimes it is tense. The situation varies, depending on the circumstances."

A notable comment came from a participant who observed: "Preference is only given to certain people, and that is where it falls. Now, we doubt the word of the person who is guiding us. There is a lot to be desired because some demand more from us than others, complicating the environment." This indicates that individuals who do not have a good relationship with the leader are often assigned more tasks. These testimonies highlight several dynamics and challenges influencing the work environment in the gym, emphasising the need to address these aspects to improve job satisfaction and productivity.

Research by [ 70 ] in 2001 supports this principle, finding that project or organisational success is inversely related to staff perceptions of personal and environmental threats. Additionally, specific organisational characteristics such as promoting free expression, encouraging questioning, participation in goal setting, innovation, and intrinsic job satisfaction were positively associated with project success. Conversely, factors such as organisational change and conflict were negatively associated with project success.

Further research on Organisational Climate Theory underscores the impact of employees' collective perceptions of their work environment on their attitudes and behaviours. An organisational climate that fosters employee satisfaction, trust, and a perception of fairness tends to generate greater motivation and commitment among employees [ 21 , 71 , 72 ]. Employees who perceive their work environment as positive, fair, and satisfying are more likely to be motivated and committed to their work.

Also, organisational climate emerges as a significant factor in job satisfaction. The perception of organisational politics can be a major stressor that negatively influences work attitudes, as discussed in [ 73 ]. This study suggests that political skills and work ethics can help mitigate these negative effects, highlighting the importance of developing personal resources to manage internal politics and improve the work environment.

In summary, a work environment characterised by positive and fair perceptions can significantly contribute to the success of a project or organisation. Leadership plays a critical role in shaping, creating, and maintaining this positive work climate. Finally, a semantic map was created to visualise the relationships between the categories and codes derived from the interviews of the participants in our study (Fig. 8 ).

Work environment category

Tasks and responsibilities

The penultimate category, “Task and responsibilities”, delves into the many facets of employees' job responsibilities in their work environment. It is composed of several codes, including "customer service", "responsibility", "equal distribution of tasks", "work", and "contracted service" (Table 10 ). These codes contribute to understanding how job responsibilities impact job satisfaction and dynamics, revealing the relationship between employees' tasks and responsibilities and their organisational experience.

Then, the previously mentioned codes originated from the interview question: "What activities do you carry out in your job daily? In response, participants said, " The activities I carry out in general terms ask us to do customer care. Also, to make corrections to the clients, to see if the client needs a free service offered by the company to attend the client with high satisfaction and they can have a quality, a service well in accordance, what they pay additionally for the personalised ones". Within this response, it is evident that employees are fully aware that customer service is part of their priority responsibilities. In addition, they highlighted the provision of a personalised service that comes at an additional cost to customers.

Finally, when asked if they were satisfied with the tasks assigned to them in their job roles, one participant responded: "Yes, I always feel satisfied with what I am asked to do. Not myself. The job is too easy. The only thing is the recognition that you do it right, or you do it wrong. When it needs to be said , this testimony again highlights the critical role of recognition in the work environment, as despite feeling satisfied with the nature of his work, the participant yearns for more consistent recognition from management, suggesting the importance of valuing and rewarding employee contributions.

However, hhese findings align with Victor Vroom's Theory of Motivation and Expectancy. It is critical to note that while all participants understand their tasks and responsibilities, some express dissatisfaction due to the perception that they are working harder than their peers and lack recognition from their leaders.

Further examination of testimonies revealed that personalised services represent a significant part of their income and are performed outside their five-hour working hours. Notably, the fitness club franchise charges employees a fee for providing one-on-one counselling, causing discomfort among staff. Despite efforts to obtain the exact fee, none of the participants disclosed this information. Consequently, these findings highlight the importance of addressing recognition and additional compensation issues to promote employee satisfaction and motivation. Finally, a semantic map has been developed to visualise the relationship between categories and codes resulting from the coding analysis based on the interviews (Fig. 9 ).

Tasks and responsibilities category

Experience and perceived job satisfaction

The final category, entitled "Experience and Perception of Job Satisfaction", has been categorised based on the following codes: "Job Satisfaction", which reflects employees' happiness and well-being at work; “Job Dissatisfaction”, which denotes discomfort or dissatisfaction; "Social Interaction", which refers to relationships and connections between co-workers and leaders, and "Mixed Job Satisfaction", which encapsulates mixed or ambivalent feelings about work (Table 11 ). These codes represent crucial elements in the perception and experience of job satisfaction.

The categories mentioned above emerged from a question posed to participants: "What has been your work experience at the gym so far?" One participant responded: "So far, my work experience has been pleasant. I like this job very much. It is pretty simple. What I appreciate most is that I enjoy what I do; it is a real passion. Although we sometimes face challenges with complicated clients, we can handle everything. I am satisfied with my work." This response reflects the overall satisfaction and enthusiasm experienced by this participant in his role at the gym.

Moreover, another participant shared his perspective: "So far, my work experience here has been very satisfying. I think a lot of it is because I enjoy what I do. I could not say much more except that I love working here and am passionate. In short, my experience has been positive." This participant also expresses his satisfaction and appreciation for his work at the gym, highlighting the importance of passion in his work experience.

However, it is noteworthy that one participant expressed a variable level of satisfaction, stating: "My work experience so far is pleasant. It is a job that I like. It is a straightforward thing. The simple fact is that I like what I do, and I am passionate about it. Although sometimes there are difficult days, some clients are complex, but nothing that cannot be handled." This employee generally appreciates his work, although he acknowledges occasional challenges and demanding clients in his work experience.

Therefore, these findings align with BF Skinner's "Reinforcement Theory," which focuses on how rewards and punishments shape human behaviour [ 74 ]. In the context of labour relations, we can observe the application of positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, punishment, and extinction. For example, the lack of recognition by leadership aligns with the concept of extinction, where a previously reinforced behaviour is no longer reinforced, resulting in decreased behaviour.

Furthermore, employees' perception of recognition is directly related to positive reinforcement, as recognition presents a pleasant stimulus after desired behaviour. These findings underscore the importance of understanding how rewards and punishments, in the form of recognition and non-recognition, affect employee satisfaction and behaviour in the work environment. While Reinforcement Theory is not without controversy, its influence endures in management and psychology, offering a valuable lens for analysing and improving work dynamics. Finally, a semantic map has been developed to visualise and understand the relationships between the categories and codes derived from the coding analysis based on participant interviews (Fig. 10 ).

Experience and perceived satisfaction

To culminate and enrich our research, we have included a word cloud (Fig. 11 ). This word cloud plays a crucial role in understanding the categories and codes generated through the three-step grounded theory approach. This visual tool aids in grasping the thematic elements and their interconnections, providing a clearer insight into the qualitative data analysis and enhancing the comprehensiveness of our study.

Cloud of the most representative words in the interviews

Analysis with Artificial Intelligence (AI)

To enhance and evaluate our research, we have utilised Artificial Intelligence (AI), an interdisciplinary field of computer science that develops systems and algorithms to emulate human intelligence, including machine learning and data-driven decision-making [ 75 , 76 ]. AI plays a crucial role in data collection, analysis, and synthesis, enabling a rigorous, data-driven research process [ 60 , 69 ]. This application aligns with contemporary technological trends and enhances our ability to analyse and understand the studied phenomena more deeply and accurately.

Furthermore, leveraging the capabilities of ATLAS.ti 23, we conducted two additional analyses to provide a more thorough exploration of the collected data. These complementary analyses enriched our understanding by allowing a detailed examination of the information. The advanced tools in ATLAS.ti 23 have strengthened the quality and depth of our analysis, offering a more comprehensive perspective of the research data.

Paragraph sentiment analysis

The first of these analyses involved conducting a Paragraph Sentiment Analysis using Artificial Intelligence support. This method allowed us to thoroughly and consistently examine the emotions expressed in each transcribed paragraph of the six interviews conducted. In other words, we assessed the tone or emotional disposition conveyed through the words in these interviews, gaining a deeper and more nuanced understanding of the participants' responses.

Specifically, sentiment analysis was applied to 451 paragraphs extracted from the six interviews using Artificial Intelligence. The results revealed that 253 paragraphs expressed neutral sentiments, 159 reflected negative sentiments, and 39 conveyed positive sentiments (Table 12 ). This approach provides a detailed understanding of the emotions and attitudes in the participants' responses, enriching our research and offering insights into their experiences and perceptions in the studied context.

This overlap with previously established categories and codes supports the validity and relevance of our sentiment analysis. It demonstrates that the emotions and attitudes identified align with the key themes and concepts explored in our study. This alignment strengthens our understanding of participants' work experiences and how they relate to satisfaction, interpersonal relationships, tasks, and responsibilities within the organisational context studied.

Conclusions and discussions

Qualitative research on job satisfaction provides a sophisticated and nuanced understanding of individuals' experiences and perceptions within their work environment. This approach diverges from traditional quantitative methods, allowing for an in-depth exploration of interactions, motivations, frustrations, and aspirations, thus enriching our comprehension of job satisfaction dynamics [ 77 ].

A primary finding from this study underscores the significant impact of internal communication on job satisfaction. Although numerous interviewees highlighted inadequacies in communication from their leaders, some observed notable improvements. This aligns with the Communication as Management Theory, which posits internal communication as a strategic tool for enhancing organisational management and culture [ 77 ]. Such improvements in communication are aligned with the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) of the UN 2030 Agenda, particularly Goal 8, which advocates for sustained, inclusive, and sustainable economic growth, alongside full and productive employment and decent work for all.

Moreover, the organisational climate emerged as a critical factor influencing job satisfaction. While the majority of participants rated the environment as fair, there was a consensus on the need for improvement, especially in leadership management. This finding is in concordance with Organisational Climate Theory, which emphasises the significant role of collective perceptions in shaping attitudes and behaviours within an organisation, thereby promoting employee satisfaction, trust, and fairness [ 71 ]. This supports SDG 8 by underlining the necessity of a positive work environment to foster decent working conditions.

Furthermore, the study highlighted the importance of interpersonal relationships, with participants stressing their relevance to job satisfaction and expressing concerns about managing these relationships within the franchise. This insight aligns with Social Exchange Theory, which underscores the pivotal role of reciprocal social interactions in enhancing motivation and commitment [ 68 ]. Cultivating strong interpersonal relationships at work supports SDG 8 by fostering a collaborative and respectful work culture, essential for sustainable economic growth.

The findings also indicate that work ethic and political skill can buffer the negative effects of perceived organisational politics on job attitudes. Effective management of interpersonal relationships is crucial for maintaining a positive work environment and enhancing employee commitment [ 33 ]. This further emphasises the role of strong interpersonal relationships in job satisfaction, aligning with the need to foster a supportive work culture.

Additionally, effective time management and conflict resolution are fundamental to achieving a work-life balance in Mexican fitness franchises. Addressing work-related stress and providing emotional support are vital for prioritising employees' well-being, which aligns with SDG 3, aiming to ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for all at all ages.

Furthermore, motivation, both positive and negative, was found to significantly influence job satisfaction, with a notable emphasis on the role of leadership in fostering motivation and providing support. Professional development and growth opportunities were also highlighted, with participants valuing face-to-face training and personal development initiatives. These findings underscore the necessity for continuous skills improvement and career advancement, aligning with SDG 4, which promotes inclusive and equitable quality education and lifelong learning opportunities.

Compensation and benefits were also crucial factors, with participants appreciating financial and employment benefits but suggesting improvements in working hours. Fair compensation directly impacts financial well-being and job satisfaction, contributing to employee retention. This aligns with SDG 10, which aims to reduce inequality within and among countries by ensuring fair wages and benefits.

In summary, this research aimed to understand how employees in Mexican fitness franchises perceive their job satisfaction and its impact on performance. The findings highlight the essential roles of internal communication, leadership, and the work environment. Enhancing these areas can significantly boost job satisfaction and performance.

Aligning these insights with the UN 2030 Agenda's Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) demonstrates how improving job satisfaction supports global sustainability objectives. This study underscores the critical connection between workplace well-being and broader social goals, emphasising the importance of strategic management practices in fostering a supportive and productive work environment.

.Notes: No experimental tests were carried out with humans in this article. The research subjects consented to the use of their information.

Practical implications

The findings from this research offer several practical implications for improving job satisfaction within fitness club franchises in Mexico.

First, enhancing internal communication is essential. Improving communication from leaders and ensuring transparency in decision-making processes can foster trust and mutual respect, which significantly enhances job satisfaction. Employees need regular feedback and clear information about their roles and organisational changes to feel valued and engaged [ 47 ].

Second, leadership training is crucial. Providing training focused on empathy, communication, and team building can address issues of ineffective leadership and improve overall employee motivation and support. Effective leaders can create a more supportive and motivating work environment, crucial for maintaining high levels of job satisfaction.

Third, offering career development opportunities is vital. Establishing clear career pathways and providing regular training and development programs help employees feel valued and invested in the organisation. This approach not only improves job satisfaction but also contributes to higher retention rates and a more skilled workforce.

Fourth, promoting work-life balance is important. Implementing flexible work schedules and allowing employees to take time off as needed supports their overall well-being, leading to higher productivity and engagement. A healthy work-life balance ensures that employees are not overwhelmed and can maintain their personal lives alongside their professional responsibilities.

Fifth, addressing compensation and recognition is necessary. Regularly reviewing compensation packages to ensure they reflect employees' contributions and market standards can address financial dissatisfaction. Additionally, recognising and appreciating employees' efforts, both formally and informally, can boost morale and motivation.

Sixth, improving the work environment is critical. Promoting a culture of fairness and inclusivity where all employees feel valued and respected can reduce conflicts and enhance job satisfaction. Implementing policies that encourage ethical behaviour and teamwork can help cultivate a positive work atmosphere.

Lastly, utilising AI for continuous improvement can be highly effective. Using AI tools for regular employee feedback and sentiment analysis can provide ongoing insights into job satisfaction. This real-time data can help organisations proactively address issues and continuously improve the work environment.

In summary, these practical steps enhancing communication, improving leadership, offering career development opportunities, promoting work-life balance, addressing compensation and recognition, improving the work environment, and utilising AI—can significantly enhance job satisfaction, motivation, and productivity within fitness club franchises in Mexico, benefiting both employees and the organisation.

Limitations and directions for future research

Limitations.

This study has several limitations that should be acknowledged. Firstly, the sample size is relatively small, consisting of only six participants from a single fitness club franchise in Mexico. This limited sample size may not fully capture the diversity of experiences and perspectives across the entire industry. Consequently, the findings may not be generalisable to all fitness club franchises in Mexico or other countries.

Secondly, the study relies on qualitative data collected through semi-structured interviews. While this approach provides in-depth insights into participants' experiences and perceptions, it may be subject to biases such as social desirability bias, where participants provide responses, they believe are expected rather than their true feelings. Additionally, the qualitative nature of the study makes it difficult to quantify the extent of the issues identified or compare them statistically across different groups.

Thirdly, the research focuses primarily on the perspectives of employees, with less emphasis on the views of management or customers. This narrow focus may overlook important factors influencing job satisfaction, such as organisational policies, customer interactions, and market conditions.

Directions for future research

Future research should address these limitations by adopting a more comprehensive approach. Firstly, expanding the sample size and including participants from multiple fitness club franchises across different regions of Mexico would provide a more representative and generalisable understanding of job satisfaction in this industry. Including a broader demographic range and varying levels of employment within the sample could also offer deeper insights.

Secondly, incorporating quantitative methods alongside qualitative approaches could help quantify the prevalence of identified issues and enable statistical comparisons. Surveys or questionnaires could be used to collect data from a larger number of participants, providing a more robust analysis of job satisfaction factors.

Thirdly, future research should consider the perspectives of management and customers to gain a more holistic view of job satisfaction. Understanding the challenges and expectations from multiple stakeholders can provide a more comprehensive framework for improving job satisfaction.

Additionally, longitudinal studies tracking changes in job satisfaction over time would be valuable. These studies could assess the long-term impact of implemented improvements and identify evolving trends and new challenges in the industry.

Finally, exploring the impact of cultural and economic factors unique to Mexico on job satisfaction could provide valuable context-specific insights. Comparative studies between different countries or regions within Mexico could also highlight how varying socio-economic conditions influence job satisfaction.

Availability of data and materials

Data is provided in the manuscript, If you need the complete interviews, please request us.

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Autonomous University of Tamaulipas, Faculty of Commerce and Administration of Tampico, Tampico, Mexico

Mario Alberto Salazar-Altamirano

CETYS University, School of Administration and Business, Tijuana, Mexico

Esthela Galván-Vela & Maria Rubi Bello-Campuzano

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Conceptualization, M.A.S.A.; methodology, E.G.V.; software, M.A.S.A and E.G.V..; validation, M.R.B.C..; formal analysis, M.A.S.A and E.G.V.; investigation, M.A.S.A., E.G.V., M.R.B.C. and R.R.R.; interviews: M.R.B.C and R.R.R.; resources, M.R.B.C. and R.R.R.; data curation, E.G.V. and M.A.S.A.; writing—original draft preparation, M.A.S.A..; writing—review and editing, E.G.V. and R.R.R.; visualization, E.G.V. and M.R.B.C.; supervision, E.G.V. and R.R.R.; project administration, E.G.V. and R.R.R.; funding acquisition, R.R.R. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

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Correspondence to Esthela Galván-Vela or Rafael Ravina-Ripoll .

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This study adhered to the ethical guidelines of the Declaration of Helsinki and national laws. It received ethical approval from the ethics committees of the Autonomous University of Tamaulipas and CETYS University, along with sampling permission from the fitness franchise. Participants were informed about the research regulations and the code of ethics of the Autonomous University of Tamaulipas, approved in session No. 314. Written informed consent was obtained from all participants, who had the right to withdraw at any time. Measures were taken to ensure anonymity and confidentiality of the information.

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Salazar-Altamirano, M.A., Galván-Vela, E., Ravina-Ripoll, R. et al. Exploring job satisfaction in fitness franchises: a study from a human talent perspective. BMC Psychol 12 , 489 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-024-01855-x

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Received : 07 February 2024

Accepted : 13 June 2024

Published : 25 September 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-024-01855-x

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