executive function and behavior
The association between a child development assessment tool of interest and educational attainment was measured by four of the 11 selected studies, as shown in Figure 3 [ 25 , 27 , 28 , 29 ]. Educational attainment was determined either by self-report of the number of school years completed or national registries that included school completion information. Six studies reported associations between a tool of interest and academic achievement [ 19 , 20 , 21 , 22 , 23 , 24 ]. There was more heterogeneity in the measurement of academic achievement, including standardized tests that were named (e.g., Iowa Test of Basic Skills, Metropolitan Achievement Test, and General Certificate of Secondary Education) or unnamed, as well as school grade point averages, either from school records or by self-report. Only two studies assessed outcomes related to wealth, income, or socioeconomic status [ 25 , 26 ].
Included studies by outcome of interest. NOTES: The total number of studies listed exceeds the number of studies included in this review because [ 25 ] assessed both educational attainment and wealth. A detailed explanation for the high/neutral/low quality designation is provided in Section 3.4 below.
Table 2 displays the results of the quality assessment, which identified two low quality studies, four neutral quality studies, and five high quality studies. The low-quality studies were published in 1995 and 2017 and represented small samples of children attending a residential school in Canada (N = 20) and an elementary school in Switzerland (N = 103), respectively [ 20 , 21 ]. These studies reported non-significant effect estimates for outcomes and had short duration of follow-up (≤3 years). The high-quality studies were published between 2001 and 2014, included large cohorts (>1000) from New Zealand, Norway, and The Netherlands, and a smaller cohort from the United States [ 22 , 25 , 26 , 28 , 29 ]. The effect measures for the high-quality studies were almost all significant (except one effect measure from a study that used the Youth Self Report & Child Behavior Checklist [ 29 ] and had greater length of follow up (range 5 to 29 years). The five high quality studies are summarized below:
Study quality assessment.
Author, Year | Selection | Attrition | Outcome Reporting | SAMPLE SIZE | Duration | Cumulative Assessment |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Moffitt, 2011 [ ] | High | High | High | High | High | 5 (High) |
Sagatun, 2014 [ ] | High | High | High | High | High | 5 (High) |
Lamp, 2001 [ ] | High | High | High | Low | High | 3 (High) |
Fergusson, 2005 [ ] | High | High | Low | High | High | 3 (High) |
Veldman, 2014 [ ] | High | High | Low | High | High | 3 (High) |
Clarren, 1993 [ ] | Low | Low | High | High | High | 1 (Neutral) |
Rothon, 2009 [ ] | High | Low | High | High | Low | 1 (Neutral) |
Samuels, 2016 [ ] | Unclear | Unclear | High | Unclear | Low | 0 (Neutral) |
McClelland, 2013 [ ] | Low | Low | Low | High | High | −1 (Neutral) |
Richards, 1995 [ ] | Low | Unclear | High | Low | Low | −2 (Low) |
Gygi, 2017 [ ] | Unclear | Low | Low | Low | Low | −4 (Low) |
Each criterion was evaluated with the following numerical values: high quality = 1; low quality = −1, unclear quality = 0. Each study could receive up to a cumulative assessment value of 5. Studies with values > 1 were designated high quality studies, values of 1, 0 and −1 neutral quality, and < −1 low quality studies. See Section 2.7 (Materials and Methods: Quality Assessment) for additional detail.
A prospective cohort study from the participants in the Dunedin Multidisciplinary Health and Development Study Cohort in New Zealand assessed childhood self-control, socioeconomic factors, and IQ using the Wechsler Intelligence Scales for Children, Revised (WISC-R; repeat measures at ages 3, 5, 7, 9, and 11), and the association with wealth at age 32. Statistical models included adjustment for socioeconomic factors and fixed-effects modeling applied to dizygotic same-gender twins to compare outcomes of siblings with differential self-control levels and thus isolate the effect of self-control. The study found that the intelligence assessment was significantly associated with four measures of wealth: socioeconomic status, income, financial planfulness, and financial issues (regression estimates −0.400, −0.291, −0.160, and 0.029, respectively; all p < 0.05).
A retrospective cohort study that utilized data from a Norwegian registry to assess the association between the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire administered to 15- to 16-year-olds and academic attainment as recorded in the national registry of school completion at age 20–21. Statistical models included adjustments for children’s ethnic background, county of residence, parents’ education, income, and marital status. The study found that this tool was significantly associated with odds of non-completion of school (ORs 1.11–1.48, all p < 0.001).
A prospective cohort study among families enrolled in the Head Start Program in the United States assessed intelligence using the Stanford Binet Intelligence scale at age 4 and its correlation with academic achievement at ages 5 to 10 years, measured by the Metropolitan Achievement Test. No information regarding the factors used for adjustment in statistical models was provided. The study found that intelligence as measured by this tool was significantly correlated with academic achievement (correlation coefficients 0.39–0.62, all p < 0.01).
A retrospective cohort study involving participants from the Christchurch Child Development Study in New Zealand assessed intelligence using the WISC-R in 8 to 9-year-olds and analyzed its association with wealth, educational outcomes, and obtaining a university degree between the ages of 18 and 25 years. Statistical models included adjustment for a series of covariate factors including measures of childhood social and family disadvantage and behavior. The study found that intelligence was significantly associated with gross income (regression coefficient 1.595, p < 0.05) and gaining school or university qualifications (regression coefficients 0.67–0.82, p < 0.01).
A prospective cohort study to determine likelihood of educational attainment (measured by number of years of schooling completed) by age 19, using data from the Tracking Adolescent’s Individual Lives Survey in The Netherlands, assessed 11 year-olds using the Child Behavior Checklist and its Youth Self Report. Statistical models included adjustment for children’s sex, age, IQ, parental educational status, and physical health status. The study found that externalizing, internalizing, and attention problems, as assessed by these combined tools, were associated with higher odds of low (primary, lower vocational and lower secondary education) vs. medium (intermediate vocational and intermediate secondary) educational attainment at age 19 (OR 1.25–1.78; statistical significance varied—see Table S3 for details).
4.1. overview of key findings.
This study sought to examine the evidence base for the association between child development assessment tools and longer-term outcome. After applying a rigorous set of inclusion criteria on 597 studies identified from our initial search, we retained 11 observational cohort studies in this systematic review that investigated the association between a child development assessment tool of interest and a long-term outcome of interest. Although the studies were distributed across all three outcomes of interest, and three development tool domains, the majority of these studies investigated the outcome of academic achievement and used intelligence or neuropsychological/executive function and behavioral tools as predictors. Five of the eleven studies were determined to be high quality and reported measures of association that were almost all significant; given that these studies had at least 100 participants, and a minimum of 5 years duration of follow-up, these would have more statistical power to show a significant effect size. These findings suggest that child development assessment tools across a range of development domains may have predictive potential for various types of outcomes later in life, but several limitations of the available literature and limitations of our study suggest that further research is needed as described below.
The evidence base supporting the ability of child development assessment tools to predict long-term outcomes remains limited to remarkably few studies, with a need for more high-quality studies that are adequately powered and have follow-up sufficient to reveal associations with adult-life outcomes. Figure 2 and Figure 3 illustrate that there are high quality studies distributed across the three outcomes of interest and all three assessment tool domains. However, the included studies were heterogeneous with respect to study design, assessment tools, outcome measures, and statistical models. This heterogeneity precludes direct comparison, even between studies that used the same tool (e.g., WISC-R) to determine whether these associations are repeatable, and the effect sizes are consistent across populations. Our quality assessment suggests that issues related to attrition remain a challenge in longitudinal studies; continuing to engage and track study participants over decades is a common challenge in longitudinal studies, so this finding is not all together surprising. However, it is notable that two studies did not clearly describe attrition, which threatens both evaluation of sample size and effect measures [ 20 , 24 ].
All included studies in this review were observational cohort studies, which are susceptible to several limitations. Cohort studies are prone to differential loss to follow-up of participants with medical or financial challenges, which can bias findings. While many studies accounted for confounding with adjusted effect estimates, additional sources of residual confounding likely remained, including family and community contextual factors, the impact of developmental interventions, and children’s physical health. Longitudinal studies that document and control for these contextual factors are needed.
Additionally, the use of multiple or composite assessment tools was framed as a “best fit” approach by some authors. However, the utilization of multiple predictors can diminish the statistical validity of significant results due to the increased probability of a significant result due solely to chance, given the large number of hypothesis tests. A priori assertions grounded in theoretical rationale for the utility of composite or multiple domain assessment tools can help to mitigate this issue and provide better evidence as to whether composite assessments improve prediction of outcomes; alternatively, the assessment of predictors separately would help to isolate the effect of individual tools.
Finally, the generalizability of findings from this review is limited by the fact that all of the studies took place in high-income countries among relatively homogenous racial and ethnic groups. Few of the tools assessed in this review have been validated for use in African, Asian, and South American populations. The absence of studies from low-and middle-income countries may be a reflection of the small number of tools validated for use in these populations, and limits generalizability of findings to populations from low-income countries, and populations with high rates of malnutrition or limited access to education.
There are several limitations to this review. First, the study was designed with a specific purpose to identify developmental assessment tools that predict long term outcomes related to academic and economic potential of individuals and communities and did not include research assessing other long-term outcomes with high relevance for health and quality of life. Despite efforts to be comprehensive in its inclusion of tools by completing a broad search of the PsycTESTS database and reviewing almost 1400 tools, some studies were excluded at full-text review because they did not include an assessment tool from the original search list (e.g., a study that examined educational attainment among three large cohorts from Finland, the UK, and the Philippines and found significant positive associations between cognitive development scores at early ages and attainment in adulthood [ 30 ]). Despite a thorough search of three robust databases, there is likely additional relevant research that was not captured. In particular, grey literature, such as non-peer reviewed organizational reports, and economics literature (e.g., EconLit database) were not considered and may be a source of additional information regarding the socioeconomic outcome of interest. Additionally, only English and French literature was reviewed due to the linguistic capacity of the research team, and thus there may be additional literature in other languages that may be particularly relevant to address the issue mentioned above related to generalizability of findings to the low-and middle-income country context.
Next, this review was completed in 2018; to remediate the concern of additional published literature not being reflected in this review, in January 2021 we conducted post-hoc abstract screening of articles published in 2018–2021 in all three databases (PubMed, Educational Resources Information Center (ERIC), and PsycINFO), using the same search terms. Of 158 results across the three databases, five articles passed abstract screening and were full-text reviewed, and only two additional studies met inclusion criteria [ 31 , 32 ]. First, Samuels et al., 2019 found that the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function (BRIEF) and BRIEF Self-Report (BRIEF-SR) were significantly associated with the upcoming cumulative grade point average in a diverse population of 259 New York middle and high school students, independent of gender, free/reduced lunch, and special education status [ 31 ]. However, it is unclear whether this instrument predicts longer-term academic performance because the time interval between tool assessment and outcome assessment was notably short. Second, Kosik et al., 2018 found in a U.S based birth cohort that the WISC at age seven was significantly associated with educational attainment, employment, and wealth in adulthood [ 32 ]. Despite the identification of these two additional studies, of which likely only Kosik et al., 2018 would be considered high-quality, we are confident that the findings reported in our main review remain relevant and continue to fill a needed gap in the literature. These studies’ findings do not conflict with findings of the five high-quality studies in the main review, and in fact only further support our review’s overall conclusions.
Finally, all of the high-quality studies reviewed reported positive associations, suggesting publication bias and potential underreporting of null findings. Coupled with the small sample sizes and shorter follow-up of the low and neutral quality studies reviewed, additional research is needed to support the associations identified between tools and outcomes studied herein.
Additional research evaluating regionally-validated tools, conducted in large and diverse study populations with adequate follow-up, including low-and middle-income countries, are needed to understand whether these tools can be used to predict long term outcomes and assess the impact of interventions. Existing data from large cohort studies in these low-and middle-income countries, either ongoing or already completed, could also be leveraged to contribute to this field of work. Many of the tools evaluated in our review were proprietary, and there is growing interest in developing tools that are valid across multiple populations and that can be administered by medical staff or community health workers [ 33 ]. Additionally, to address the limitation of the inability to capture all potentially relevant development tools of interest, researchers conducting future research on this topic could consider not restricting their search to specific tools, but instead develop a detailed search string on keywords related developmental domains.
Our review identified 11 studies investigating associations between early childhood assessment tools and long-term economic and academic outcomes of interest. Five of these studies were determined to be high-quality and reported mostly statistically significant associations, suggesting that certain child development assessment tools are associated with the long-term outcomes of interest. Given that child development assessment tools were designed to identify children with developmental delay at the time of assessment, our study addresses a key need to characterize the potential for these tools to be sensitive to intervention effects and to potentially predict longer-term outcomes. The high-quality literature reviewed was primarily conducted in high-resource contexts and was relatively sparse; as such, additional prospective studies, engaging large, diverse populations in both high-income and low-and middle-income countries are needed to adequately address remaining gaps in this evidence base.
We appreciate the three volunteer neuropsychologists who assisted in domain classification of the childhood development assessment tools of interest: Shannon Lundy, Stephany Cox, and Gina Pfeifle. The majority of the content of this paper was included in some form in a report for the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation; further refinement of the quality assessment methodology and Discussion section was conducted after the report was delivered.
The following are available online at https://www.mdpi.com/1660-4601/18/4/1538/s1 , Document S1, Document S2: PubMed, PyscINFO, and ERIC database search strings, Table S1: Child development assessment tools included in search string, Table S2. Details of studies included in the review.
S.P.M.-H. and S.B. conceptualized and designed the study, reviewed, and revised the manuscript. L.N.I.-D., A.K., D.B. and J.S. designed the study, collected the data, carried out the analyses, drafted the initial manuscript, and reviewed and revised the manuscript. S.E.H. critically reviewed the manuscript for important intellectual content and reviewed and revised the manuscript. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
This research was funded by the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation through a grant with the University of Washington Strategic Analysis, Research and Training (START) Center.
Informed consent statement, data availability statement, conflicts of interest.
Sharon Bergquist was employed by and Susanne Martin-Herz was a consultant to the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation during the course of the review. The content is solely the responsibility of the authors and does not necessarily represent the official views of the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation. All other authors have no conflict of interest to declare.
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
An official website of the United States government
The .gov means it’s official. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.
The site is secure. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.
Email citation, add to collections.
Your saved search, create a file for external citation management software, your rss feed.
Affiliations.
High-quality, centre-based education and care during the early years benefit cognitive development, especially in children from disadvantaged backgrounds. During the COVID-19 pandemic and its associated lockdowns, access to early childhood education and care (ECEC) was disrupted. We investigate how this period affected the developmental advantages typically offered by ECEC. Using parent-report data from 189 families living in the UK, we explore associations between time spent in ECEC by 8-to-36-month-olds, their socioeconomic background, and their growth in language and executive functions between Spring and Winter 2020. Receptive vocabulary growth was greater in children who continued to attend ECEC during the period, with a stronger positive effect for children from less advantaged backgrounds. The growth of cognitive executive functions (CEFs) was boosted by ECEC attendance during the period, regardless of socioeconomic background. Our findings highlight the importance of high-quality ECEC for the development of key skills and for levelling socioeconomic inequalities.
Keywords: COVID‐19; childcare; cognitive development; executive functions; language development; socioeconomic status.
© 2021 The Authors. Infant and Child Development published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
PubMed Disclaimer
The authors report no conflicts of interest.
Associations between Early Childhood Education…
Associations between Early Childhood Education (ECEC) and changes in language (a–d) and EF…
Associations between Early Childhood Education (ECEC) and changes in receptive language skills during…
Linkout - more resources, full text sources.
NCBI Literature Resources
MeSH PMC Bookshelf Disclaimer
The PubMed wordmark and PubMed logo are registered trademarks of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS). Unauthorized use of these marks is strictly prohibited.
Popular Searches: DAP ; Coping with COVID-19 ; E-books ; Anti-Bias Education ; Online Store
For families.
IMAGES
VIDEO
COMMENTS
Overview. Early Childhood Education Journal is a professional publication of original peer-reviewed articles that reflect exemplary practices in the field of contemporary early childhood education. Articles cover the social, physical, emotional, and intellectual development of children age birth through 8, analyzing issues, trends, and ...
Journal of Early Childhood Research. The Journal of Early Childhood Research is a peer-reviewed journal that provides an international forum for childhood research, bridging cross-disciplinary areas and applying theory and research within the professional community. This reflects the world-wide … | View full journal description.
Early Childhood Education Journal is a professional publication of original peer-reviewed articles that reflect exemplary practices in the field of ...
This excerpt from Developmentally Appropriate Practice illustrates the ways in which play and learning mutually support one another and how teachers connect learning goals to children's play.
The TOP program that stresses social and academic skills for young children appears to have long-lasting benefits. After 5 years, these children were successful in school—academically, socially, and emotionally. Academic performance increased for children provided with high-quality, early learning.
Abstract For decades, important early childhood scholars who critiqued normative ideas about early childhood frameworks, guidelines, and assessments have been silenced in highly ranked child development and early childhood journals. The qualitative methods needed to prioritize the perspectives of marginalized communities (i.e., ethnography, interview and focus groups, video-cued, narrative ...
Young Children is a journal for educators and parents who care about early childhood education. Find research, best practices, and inspiring stories in every issue.
One often-discussed topic is the optimal age to begin early childhood education. Barnett (1995, 2008) reviewed more than 30 studies and found that early childhood education to be positive for children living in poverty.
There must be a clear commitment to aligning benchmarks into actual education systems and ensuring access for all children to high-quality early childhood education (UNESCO 2022). Although there is a large body of research available on quality ECE, still it seems like more work is needed.
The science of early childhood and its long-term consequences have generated political momentum to improve early childhood development and elevated action to country, regional and global levels.
Despite calls to expand early childhood education (ECE) in the United States, questions remain regarding its medium- and long-term impacts on educational outcomes. We use meta-analysis of 22 high-quality experimental and quasi-experimental studies conducted ...
This issue of Young Children offers research-supported responses to these questions with a cluster of articles devoted to intentional practices that promote social and emotional development.
Online Journals Here is a list of free online journals that have articles relevant to your work in Early Childhood Care and Education.
Recent findings from the Lancet series on early childhood development estimate that over 250 million children under five years of age in low-and middle-income countries are at risk of not achieving their full developmental potential [1].
Early education and development. "Early Education and Development (EE&D) is a multi-disciplinary professional journal that publishes primarily empirical research on the links between early childhood education and children's development from birth to age 8. It is international in scope and designed to emphasize the implications of research and ...
Journal of Early Childhood Literacy is a fully peer-reviewed international journal. Since its foundation in 2001 JECL has rapidly become a distinctive, leading voice in research in early childhood literacy, with a multinational range of … | View full journal description. This journal is a member of the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE).
Each of the articles that appear in this issue of the International Journal of Early Years Education relates implicitly or explicitly to play opportunities for young children, whether addressing a specific aspect of the early childhood curriculum or as part of a wider focus on interactions or transition from early childhood settings into school.
Abstract. Early childhood education is an important area within the lives of the individuals. This education begins, when the child reaches the age of two. It establishes the foundation. from ...
Technology and Media in Early Childhood Education The latest issue of Young Children delves into the what, why, when, and how of incorporating technology and media into early childhood programs and classrooms.
ABSTRACT As societies become more aware of the importance of early socio-emotional skills for children's later success, teachers report that they are ill-equipped to support and enhance these skills within their 'traditional' teacher role. This paper turns to the contributions that Russian psychologist Lev Vygotsky and his adherents have made to our understanding of emotional development ...
Role-play as a natural form of early childhood activity is widely studied by scholars and arouses keen interest among both practitioners in the field of psychology and education, and parents. This ...
Abstract High-quality, centre-based education and care during the early years benefit cognitive development, especially in children from disadvantaged backgrounds. During the COVID-19 pandemic and its associated lockdowns, access to early childhood education and care (ECEC) was disrupted.
Find research-based resources, tips and ideas for families—from child development to reading, writing, music, math, and more!
One factor is that nearly 60 percent of all public elementary schools in the U.S. today have a Pre-K program in the building. Yet, prior research reveals that leaders are often not prepared to effectively lead early education programs. This study assesses the current state of early education leadership preparation among UCEA-affiliated programs.
Given the high potential of early childhood education and care (ECEC) to support children's learning and wellbeing (Melhuish et al., Citation 2015), efforts to shift child developmental trajectories have increasingly focused on ECEC and early childhood educators as key contexts and drivers for intervention.Considerable efforts have leveraged these contexts to promote the development of early ...